BOOKS.
UBICINT's LETTERS ON TURKEY.* TROUGH contemporary in pointof appearance, these letters have quickly become an authority as regards modern Turkey ; and in a certain sense deservedly so. Ubicini has a deep knowledge of Turkish history and Mahometan literature, and a considerable acquaintance with the various races which inhabit Turkey ; so that he brings a practical knowledge to correct or animate the written letter. In brief sketches he presents the pith of Turkish history on important epochs, and readily uses examples to illus- trate his arguments. He has carefully investigated the theory of Ottoman policy and practice ; pointing out the real spirit of the Mahometan religion, (much misunderstood,) and its actual modi- fications; tracing the causes of Turkish decline, and stating the grounds of its probable regeneration. The largest part of the work consists of exposition. Laws and religion, the organiza- tion of the Turkish government, statistics connected with fi- nance, industry, education, and literature, are exhibited rather in their broad results than in minute details. A similar exposi- tion is given of the different Rayahs---the Greeks, Armenians,. Latins, (Roman Catholics,) Protestants, and Jews. These expo- sitions furnish a large amount of information, and are illustrated by anecdotes and the personal knowledge of the author. This in- formation, however, is of a kind which leads to no very certain conclusions as to the actual condition of the inhabitants of Tur- key, the manner in which government is administered and life goes on, or to the more urgent question of what are the pp spects
of Turkish regeneration. The essential principles of B m or Buddhism, as they may be deduced from parts of the Sacred Books, are very different from the dogmas with which specula- tion has overlaid and the long practice of men has corrupted those religions. Nay, the Sermon on the Moimt and the actions and discourses of Christ offer Christianity in a very different light from what it appears under the forms and practices of many churches : it would not do to argue from the Gospels as to the actual condition of Rome or modern Greece. A list of the Archbishops and Bishops of England and the subordinate hierarchs, a geographical description of the dioceses, statistics of the parishes and of the clergy, are necessary to a reformer of the Church : they would, however, go but a little way towards as- certaining the temper, character, modes of feeling and of living aanong the clergy, which are so necessary to one who would—say unite the discordancies in the bosom of the Church of England, and return the Wesleyans to the fold. The broad conclusions of M. Ubieini are greatly in favour of the toleration and liberality of the Mahometan religion and of the Turkish government. The principle of the government, and the wish of almost every Sultan, have been full toleration for all reli- gions, and the enjoyment by every. Rayah of his general rights as a subject, and of the particular rights secured to him by stipula- tion or grant. Tyranny both civil and religious has been exercised, but it has been local ; that of' pashas or inferior officers, not by the wish of the Government, still less of the Sultans. Under the reign of the earlier and more active monarchs, indeed, such op- pression scarcely took place, because their eye was always over their officers and their hand swift to smite. All this may be ; but it is contrary to the current opinion of historians, travellers, and the people in general. The striking instances of justice and tolera- tion in Mahometan rulers, some of which M. Ubicini quotes, rather support the popular notions ; they are so remarkable because
are so rare. Still, when we compare the toleration of the Ottoman monarchs of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries with the reli- gions.perseentions going on in Italy and Western Europe, the palm of liberality must certainly be assigned to the Grand Turk. Nay, if we do not go so far back—scarcely farther than the memory of men still living—a more general and systematic persecution anything known in Turkey might be found in the Penal Laws of Ireland. In fact, the present disorganized state of the empire arises partly from this liberality. Every sect in Turkey is a sort of imperium in imperio, wholly as regards religion, very much so in civil matters relating to religion—as in marriage and divorce. The Greeks to a very great degree were independent in all that eoncerns themselves, and in their villages or municipalities were altogether free from Turkish rule except in tlin:ease of local op- pression. Something perhaps of Mahometan contempt for the In- fidel may have mingled with this ; it might be indifference as much as liberality. The same disregard of all without the Mussul- man pale, coupled with an Oriental sense •of justice, dictated the establishment of those privileges and protectorates which with- draw many. from Turkish jurisdiction, weaken the native authori- ties, helped to produce the late war, and, unless very carefully carried out, will continue to cause difficulty and disturbance to Turkey. The obstacle to extensive change and renovation found in the peculiar character of the Mahometan religion has been often dwelt upon by those who are hostile to Turkey ; it has not escaped M. nor does he deny its difficulties with the people. A mode has been hit upon to render them less with those who are not too fanatical, by means of one of those interpretations or "constructions" which casuistry can generally find at the bid- ding of power.
• Letters on Turkey : an Account of the Religious, Political, Social, and Com- mercial Condition of the Ottoman Empire; the Reformed Institutions, Army, Nary, 4.c. Translated from the French of A. Micini, by Lady Easthope. In two volumes. Published by Murray. " Among the Turks the religious principle absorbed all others, and the Koran was the foundation not only of their religion but of their legal and political constitution. No change could be made in any of the institutions of Turkey unless based on the Koran. Mahmoud first among the rulers of Islam discovered this truth, and the means of applying it. He saw that the first step towards the regeneration of his empire was to introduce a wider interpretation of the precepts of the Koran : he changed notthe letter of.the law, but modified its spirit, to suit the exigencies of his plan of reform.
"The Koran declares that 'It is lawful to employ the arms of the infidel for his destruction,' and Mahmoud introduced European arms and discipline among his troops. The faithful are commanded to go in search of light even to China,' and Mahmend summoned to his side the science and inven- tion of the West. Thus did he remove the chief barriers which separated Turkey from the rest of Europe, and, by the indomitable energy of his character, succeeded in the enterprise which proved fatal to his unfortunate predecessor Selim " The presentSultan has pursued the same th ; and, though it has been less rugged and dangerous to him than to Ma oud, who led the way, it is still surrounded with difficulties.
" The great fault of the Ottoman government is its want of power to se- cure a pure and uncorrupt administration : the great thing to be desired is, that it should be strengthened at the core, and so enabled to acquire a more efficient control overthe administration dits distant representatives, pashas, and other functionaries."
The work of Ubicini is divided into two parts ; the first volume containing an exposition of the Turks, the second of the Rayahs. The second volume is the fullest, and the freshest in its matter entering at length into the religions and civil rights of the differ- ent religions communities, their internal organization, and their relation to the Porte as the supreme power. The Greeks, as the most important body, are treated with the greatest elaboration.
Their history under Turkish rule their advances during the last century and a half, in wealth, education, and Turkish official em- ployment—are as striking as the statement of them will be new. Equally, new to many will be the account of the independent pow- ers which the Patriarch, the Synod, and indeed the clergy generally, exercise over the laity ; the last having nothing be- tween them and the tyranny of the priesthood but the power of the Sultan ; and this is not exercised as it ought to be, through a dread of foreign diplomacy. The account of the Latins, whether thorough Romanists or a sort of half-convertsfrom the Armenians, is not very full ; and it strikes us as being somewhat partial, less from religions than French feelings. On the great question of -the regeneration of Turkey, we find favourable opinions, but we must confess -very few data from -which an independent conclusion can be drawn. In the religious elements both of Jew and Christian there is an external cause of disturbance. Diplomatic interference by Russia, France, and Austria, through motives of vanity, am- bition, or co-religion, is to be dreaded ; and on the part of Eng- land from philanthropy, or perhaps rivalry. If not much internal good is likely to accrue from the Rayahs, they are not likely to do any mischief. The three churches so hate each other that any two would join with.the Turks to put down the third, rather than com- bine together in a common objeot. Of the three, the Latins are numerically too weak to attempt anything • being only about eighty thousand, and well affected towards the. Government, when they get what they want. The Armenians number about two sand a half, of which half a million may be found in. Europe. In manners and character the Armenian bears a closer resemblance to the • Turk than any other of the Rayah races ; he is now safe in property and person, secure in his industry, and growing rush. He will not join, much less originate, disturbances. The professors of the Greek religion within the dominions of the Sultan may probably be twelve mil- lions, but there are not above six millions under his immediate rule. Of these four millions are Sclavonians, and two millions of Greek race. Between the two races the antipathy is so great that there is no possibility of combination ; " they would rather perish separately than be saved together." The.genuine Greeks, like some more independent and advanced peoples, seem divided into _three parties,—the respectable and well-to-do classes, who stand •by the powers that- be ; the mass, not very numerous, who are indifferent as long as they are let alone ; the active-minded, professional, and adventurous class, not yet es- tablished, who have to live by their wits, and do not make a very striking Ii ing , and these last are in favour of a change—are what we should call "advanced Liberals."
" It is a very common error to suppose that the superior clergy of the Eastern. Church in Turkey are secretly attached to Russia. The clergy in Turkey., as elsewhere, are of the ecclesiastical party, and of that alone ; they are little solicitous as to What power governs, provided their own religious and eivil-supremaey be not attacked. Under the Ottoman rule, the Patri- arch of Constantinople is not only the spiritual pastor oftwelve millions of souls,-but is also invested with a sort of kingly authority over six millions of subjects, over whom he exercises the most extensive jurisdiction, levying imposts, distributing justice, dispenaing, *ritual pardon and condemnation, remitting or inflicting temporal punishment, and, in short, opening and dosing at vrill the gates of the prison and of paradise. " In the -same manner, each metropolitan in his eparehy (or diocese) par- ticipates in-the right of the Patriarch. to exercise (of course within narrower limits) both spiritual andtemporal authority. " But suppose the power of the Czar once established at Constantinople; the tecumemeal.Patrutreh, the head of a great church, invested with the delegated power of the Sultan over a fifth part of his subjects, sinks at once into a Russian archbishop, adorned perhaps with a more pompous title than his colleagues, but equally dependent upon the Synod of St. Petersburg, and equally iable to receive the commands of the Autocrat from a colonel of hussars, who may chance to be one of his aides-de-camp.
" No illusion on this subject is possible. The Greeks of the Pamir can- not forget that the Czar Peter the Great severed the tie which united the Muscovite Church to the mother-church of Constantinople, and declared himself sole head of the orthodox religion ; and they know how theinifor- tunate bishops of the Russian Church have been ever since compelled to submit to a despotism which demands only slaves and tolerates no partners is power. It is not surprising, therefore, that the most considerable Greek -w families, and all those ho in Constantinople or the provinces occupy an elevated position in the Church, in commerce, or as Government function- aries, should openly incline towards the Porte, with whose interests their own are closely and up.
" The party opposed to the Turkish domination is united on one point only—the expulsion of the Turks from Europe ; that end attained, they have no longer anything in common. Some dream of an independent Re- maic state ; others would be not unwilling to see the imperial throne of By- zantium restored, and occupied by the Czar or some member of his family, others, again, who form what is called the party of Helletaistn, simply de- sire to be annexed to Greece. "Hellenism, like Germanism, exists as yet only in theory. Imported into Turkish Greece by professors from Athens, it has scarcely yet made its way beyond the circles of literary and social life. It serves as a brilliant and effective text for learned essayists, for doctors in their schools, and for the declamations of their aspiring pupils. But there is a wide distance be- tween declamation and action. I have conversed with many Greeks in Turkey, and amongst them have met with very few who seriously believed in the possibility of such an annexation, still fewer who were disposed to act in the cause. It must, however, be acknowledged that these few be- longed to the most enlightened and liberal class of the nation ; namely, the members of the medical, legal, and literary professions. Beyond this narrow circle, Hellenism, however well adapted to flatter the national vanity of the Greeks, cannot boast of many adherents."
Putting other known facts to those in M. ITbieini's book, we should say that the best hope of Turkey is in the spread of educa- tion, which has already made some advances ; its most urgent necessity is a strong and tolerably honest government ; its greatest danger is a continual interference on the part of foreign states, with concealed and not very creditable motives in the form of personal grievances.
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