BOOKS.

FINLAY'S HISTORY OF OMEROE 1INDER OTHOMAN AND VENETIAN ' DOMINATION.*

Tag history of a declining or subject nation is rarely of interest, especially when the people exhibit neither literature arts, science, nor commerce, to vary even in a small degree the d;.111 progress of decay. Dr. Finlay, m his History of Greece under the dominion of the Turks and Venetians, has produced, a much more interesting volume than might have been expected. • In part this is owing to keeping Greece subordinate to her dominators, the Turks and e- netians ; to her plunderers, the Mediterranean Corsairs of the middle ages ; to her deluders the Russians since Catherine.

The attention now attracted to deluders, imparts an extrinsic interest to the character of the Greeks and their conduct through their long degradation of nearly four centuries ; a gloomy period, un- relieved by a ray of moral or intellectual light, and almost as dark when we look to the future. By some Greek lovers the author of the History of Greece from its Conquest by the Romans to the approach of the Greek Insurrection is regarded as a fa- vourable authority ; but neither the associations of long residence in the country, nor the liking which a literary subject generally produces, nor long and conscientious research, can extract an opin- ion—we were about to say a word—in their favour. Under the tolerant and severely just rule of the early Sultans, or the relaxed government of their weaker successors, the Greeks quietly sub- mitted to whatever tyranny was put upon them, but took no ad- vantage of the opportunities afforded them to consolidate their nation or raise their individual character. During the short tirae in which Venice held the Morea, that usually corrupt and oppressive government really endeavoured to advance the pros- penty'of the people as far as they could according to their lights ; but without effect. The religious hatred between the 'Greeks and Romanists, and the personal corruption of the generality of the Venetian officers, might contribute to the failure ; but the real cause lies deeper—the vanity and treachery of the Greek cha- racter.

"Many circumstances prevented the Venetian Government from intrust- ing the Greeks with any considerable share in the local administration. They did not, however, so completely falsify the communal system, and render it a mere organ of the central administration, as has been done re- cently by the Bavarians and by Greek ministers under a constitutional go- vernment. The Venetians were compelled to guard against the influence of the Othoman Porte, which continued to be great in the Mores, both over the Greek primates, who had property or connexions in the Turkish pro- vinces, and over the Greek clergy. The power of the Patriarch of Constan- tinople was an especial object of disquietude, as he was a powerful instru- ment in the hands of the Othoman Government to create opposition to Ve- nice. The complete alienation in religious and national feeling between the Greeks and the Catholics rendered it impossible for the Venetians to at- tempt amalgamating the native population of Greece with the Republic by conferring on the Greeks the privileges of citizens of Venice. The French of Louisiana, and the Spaniards of Florid; though stanch Catholics, have become good citizens of the United States ; but no concessions have hitherto induced the Greeks to become useful members of a foreign state. They can be industrious in money-making, like the sews; but even when they accept the boon of foreign citizenship as a means of increasing their _gains, their idea of Greek patriotism induces them to be more eager in their opposition to that foreign nationality which protects them than active in striving to develop those virtues which would secure respect to themselves and pros- perity to their native country. To judge the 'Venetian Government fairly, it must be compared with the British Government in the Ionian Islands, and with the Bavarian domination in Greece ; and surely it will not suffer by the comparison."

The piracy of the Mediterranean is a very curious' branch of history, which, so far as we know, has not been fully written, though more worthy of treatment than the story of the Buccaneers, from the civilization of the peoples upon and among which it was exercised. The subject is well handled by Dr. Finlay, and he throws a steady light upon its general character and mischievous economical effects : his leading object, however, confining him to Greece, shuts him out from its wider operation along other coasts, as well as from the history of piracy or the manners of the corsairs and the peoples they were brought in contact with. The opportunity of indicating the crimes induced by the lax morality of those times, especially in maritime warfare and against infidels, is not lost. The following incident refers to Venice, but it is pro- bable that any Southern mariners would have done much the same.

"A few leading examples will suffice to show how the rapacity and cruelty of the corsairs affected the position of the Greeks as Othoman subjects. The lawless conduct of the captains of ships, and the general insecurity of navigation, are proved by a memorable act of piracy, committed by a Vene- tian noble in command of a squadron on some Othoman vessels during a time of peace.

"In the year 1584, the widow of Ramadan Pasha, late Dey of Tripoli in Barbary, embarked with her family and slaves in a vessel for Constanti- nople. The property she carried with her was valued at eight hundred thousand ducats, and for security dgainst pirates, she was attended by two armed galleys. Stress of weather drove these ships into the entrance of the Adriatic, Where a Venetian squadron, under Petro Emo, was stationed to protect the trading vessels under the flag of the Republic. Emo pretended to mistake the Turkish galleys for pirates. He attacked them with a supe- rior force, and captured them after a desperate resistance. 11e then com- mitted the most infamous cruelties, in order to appropriate the rich booty and compromise his crew so far as to insure their silence. Two hundred and fifty Turks who had survived the engagement were murdered. The son of Rmadan was stabbed in his mother's arms. The female slaves were ravished, cruelly mutilated, and thrown into the sea. A beautiful girl, who declared she was a Venetian, a Cornara, and a Christian, vainly im- plored the brother of Emo to spare her honour. She solemnly declared that

• The History of Greece under Othoman and Venetian Domination. By George

.Finley, #e. Published by Blackwood and Sons. she had been enslaved while a child in Cyprus ; but young Raw proved-deaf to her prayers. She received the same treatment ifs the rest, and her body was thrown into the sea. One of the Turks, however, escaped with his lik, and at last found his way to Constantinople, where his story soon raised a general cry for vengeance. The Persian war, in which Murad III. was en- gaged, saved Venice from an immediate attack ; and the Republic gained time to appease the Porte by den3ing, explaining, apologizing, and bribing. The truth, however, could not be concealed. Eino was brought to justice and beheaded. The captured galleys were repaired and sent to Constanti- nople, manned by Turks delivered from slavery, in the place of those who had been slain. Four hundred Christian slaves were also delivered to the Porte, as it was said Ramadan had possessed that number at Tripoli:though it was evident no such number had been embarked in the captured ships. But of these slaves the greater number was divided among the Othoman ministers as an additional bribe to prevent war, and only it small part was given to the widow and to the heirs of Ramadan."

The most important part of the history is that which involves the policy and constitution of the Ottomans in order to explain their treatment of the Greeks, and the relations of the two peoples one to the other. We say Ottomans, because, though succee•

to the conquests and availing themselves of the power of the

juk Tumomans, the political plans and the government of the Ottoman Sultans were neither Turcoman nor Seljuk, but some- times contrary. Indeed, the great Seljuk feudatories of Asia, like the barons of -Western Europe, were often in opposition to the central government ; nor were they really subdued save by the Mahmoud of our own days—if the feudal system is even yet en- tirely destroyed. The principle established by the Ottoman rulers was, that all emanates from the monarch ; and that in government he is all in all and everywhere, ' by himself or his representative. The formation of the Janissaries from a levy of one-fifth of the male children of the Christians might in its origin be a youthful conscription, with a purely military end, if indeed it had not a pious and charitable purpose Christian orphans being the first ob- jects. It was soon extended to all the personnel of the state. The children thus levied were trained by the state, and their men- tal and physical constitutions closely watched.. According to their natural capabilities, they were further educated in the palace schools for civil or military employ, drafted into the ranks of the army, or for the personal service of the Sultan. No Ottoman Turk had any share of political power, or formed one of the ruling class though his race and religion made him one of the dominant class. The Sultan's affairs were administered by his slaves ; in like manner his regular army was constituted. Hence, the Mahometan sub- jects of the Sultan were no more to him than the Christians except as coreligionists, when the Sultan had any religion. While this system retained its vigour, and the monarchs exercised the qo- vernment in their own persons, it produced a very able adminis- tration, and one of the most successful armies ever seen ; far abler, indeed, than anything known in contemporary Europe. But systems, says Dr. Finlay, that are founded on injustice and against the laws of nature contain within themselves the seeds of dissolution. The Sultans withdrew from public affairs to the pleasures or idleness of the seraglio, and delegated their powers to the Viziers. Discipline and finally. martial virtue, became relaxed ; the distant Pashas, especially in Asia, where the feudal system was strongest, neglectful ; the Ja- nissaries, from a regularly-trained band originating in a care- ful conscription, first sank to an hereditary militia, and then to a sort of 'national guard or volunteer corps in which citizens en- rolled themselves for certain privileges. he tribute of children, like serfdom in Western Europe, died out ; and the Sultan's schools followed them. It is possible that they still remain for diplomatic purposes. The Ottoman negotiators during the late turmoil have exhibited quite an equality with the other diploma- tists.

This part of Dr. Finlay's book is well worth studying, not only as an historical exposition, but for the assistance it may furnish in formin a judgment upon the present condition of the Greek and Turkish empires. How it is done, may be seen in this " cha- racter " of the conqueror of Constantinople. "Mohammed II. was one of those great men whose personal conduct, from their superiority of talent and firmness of purpose, modifies the course of public events, when it is granted to them, as it was to him, to exercise their influence during a long and successful reign. Though Ire ascended the throne at the age of twenty-one, his character was already formed by the education he had received. An enemy who brew him personally, and had the most powerful reasons to hate him, acknowledges that, with all the fire and energy of youth, he possessed the sagacity and the prudence of old age. The palace of the Sultan, where the young princes of the race of Othman received their education amidst the tribute-children who had been selected on account of their superior talents and amiable dispositions, was for several generations an excellent public school. No reigning family ever educated so many great princes as the house of Garman. When the intellect was strong, and the disposition naturally good, the character was developed at an early age by the varied intercouse of the tribute-children and their in. structors. In this society the young Sultan Mohammed, whom nature had endowed with rare mental and physical advantages, learned the art of com- manding himself as well as others' by his desire to secure the esteem and attachment of the youths who were the companions of his amusenients, and who were destined to become the generals of his armies and the ministers of his cabinet. Mohammed II. made it the duty of the Sultan to preside in person over the whole government. For many years-he was the real prime minister of the public administration ; for he retained in his own hands the supreme direction of all public business after the execution of the Grand Vizier Khalil, whom he had reason to suspect of treasonable dealings with the Greeks. The succeeding grand viziers only acted as conunanders-in- chief of the army and principal secretaries of state for the general adminis- tration, not as vicegerents of the Sultan's power. From the time of Mural I. to the taking of Constantinople, the usages and customs of the Othoman tribe still exercised some influence over the public administration, and the office of grand vizier had been hereditary in the family of Djenderelli. Khalil was the fourth of this family who filled the office, and with him the political influence of the Othoman tribe expired. The project of Khalil had

been to create an acknowledged power in the hands of the grand vizier, as protector of the peaceable subjects of the empire, independent of the mili- tary and the military classes. His avarice, as much as his ambition, induced him to use his hereditary authority to constitute himself the leader of these views, and to endeavour to control the operations of the army. His conduct awakened the suspicion of Mohammed IL, who detected his in- trigues with the Greeks; and forty days after the conquest of Constantinople, Khalil was beheaded at Adrianople. Several of the grand viziers of Mo- hammed H. were men of great ability. Like the Sultan, they had been educated in the schools of the imperial palace. The ablest of all was Mah- moud Pasha, whose father was a Greek, and his mother an Albanian. He was a man worthy to rank with Mohammed II. and with Skanderbeg. "The successors of Mohammed II. pursued the line of policy he had traced out, and followed the maxims of state laid down in the Kanun-name with energy and perseverance for several generations. The Sultans continued to be men both able and willing to perform the onerous duties imposed on them. For two centuries and a half—from Othman to Suleiman the Legis- lator—the only Sultan who was not a man of preeminent military talent was Bayezid ; yet he was nevertheless a prudent and accomplished prince. All these sovereigns directed the government of their empire. The council, composed of the great officers of state and of viziers of the bench, was held in their presence."

It would seem unnecessary to recommend this history ; but, according to the author, such is not the case. In i expounding the ill effects of the Ottoman land-tax levied in kind, as it still s in Greece, and was till lately in England in tithes, Dr. Finlay adds a note.

"The author of this work is practically acquainted with the difficulty of making any agricultural improvements under this system. He wasted much money and time before he fully perceived the impossibility of one in- dividual contending against general regulations and the habits they produce. In a pecuniary point of view, he found cultivating the soil of Greece even more unprofitable than writing its history.?

So it is. The public will sooner pay to be amused than in- structed, even when instruction, as in M.. Finley's case, takes an attractive form. It may be consoling to know that the still more successful appeal is to a still lower taste. Many are aware that, some five-and-twenty years since, the effects of the Scott and Constable crash, the literary stagnation arising from the state of politics, and perhaps the foregone results of an erroneous system, shook "the trade." According to Southey's just published. Cor- respondence, when "the Conscript Fathers of the Row" were es- timating the strength of a house which possessed some of the most standard copyrights of the age, they diid not look to poets, philo- sophers, historians, or even novelists, as the sheet-anchor, but to a popular cookery-book.