THE PROVINCIAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND.

THE FOUR NORTHERN COUNTIES.

THE block of territory between the German Ocean and the Irish Sea which comprises the Four Northern Counties of England forms an irregular parallelogram, of the two longer sides of which the northern makes a greater, and the southern a less dip from north-east to south-west, the northern line also being much more regular than the southern, and of the remaining sides the eastern being the longer. Its neighbour on the north is Scotland, which is parted from it at the western extremity by the Solway Frith. The Irish Sea and the German Ocean cover its western and eastern frontiers respectively, while its southern frontier is formed in a very irregular manner by the estuary of the Tees, Yorkshire, and Lancashire. An arm of Yorkshire at one point pushes this southern frontier line for a short distance to its most northern latitude, and a diagonal line continuing the direction of this arm across the whole block, in a north-western direction to the Cheviot Hills on the Scotch frontier, would divide it into two portions, each of which has, to a considerable extent, a distinct character and a distinct history, the eastern half consisting of the sister counties of Durham and Northumberland, and the western of the sister counties of Westmoreland and Cumber- land. Although, therefore, there is something in common between these two most northern and contiguous districts of England, they form naturally two groups. The western coast-line of these great northern districts is formed entirely by the county of Cumber- land, and makes a bold crescent sweep from the estuary called Duddon Mouth on the south to the Solway Frith on the north. The first of these estuaries marks the point on the coast where the detached portion of Lancashire terminates and Cumberland commences, and the western and southern shores of this estuary form a neck of land which is the southern headland of Cumber- land. The coast-line then proceeds in a north-westerly direction till a little south of Whitehaven, where it forms another bold head- land, the most westerly point of the county, and then sweeping to the north-east to Workington, is pierced by the mouth of the (Cumberland) river Derwent just by that town, and then makes another sweep north-east by east past Maryport, where the coast- line is pierced by the month of the Ellen, to Allonby, where it turns northward again for a short distance, thus forming a bay at that point, and then trends to the north-east to the mouth of the Solway Frith. Here the coast-line, as it turns in a direct easterly direction to form the southern shore of the Frith, is broken by a wide basin into which, at its opposite extremities, the rivers Waver and Wampool discharge their waters. After this its course is to the eastward, in a rather irregular line to near RocklifF, where it reaches the estuary of the Eden (with its affluents the Croglin, the Irthing, the Peteril, and the Calder). At the eastern extremity of the Solway Frith the coast-line of Cumber- land is pierced by an estuary into which the waters of the Esk and the Line discharge themselves, and then, turning to the north-west, it reaches the frontier of Scotland.

The eastern coast-line of the northern counties, formed by the two counties of Durham and Northumberland, has a general

• north-westerly direction from the estuary of the Tees to the mouth of the Tweed. After passing the mouth of the Tees estuary, this general sweep is broken by a projecting neck of land at Hartlepool, and from this point the coast-line makes a great sweeping bay north-west and then north-east from the mouth of the Wear at Sunderland, a little to the north-east of which town it turns again more decidedly north-west by west to the month of the Tyne at South Shields. Its course is then again from North Shields in a wavy line in a general north-westerly direc- tion, forming several sweeping bays, and pierced by the mouths of the Northumbrian rivers, and broken by a deep basin a little to the north of Bamborough. To the north of this basin, after forming a projecting neck or headland, the coast-line dips to the south, and then turning to the north-west again makes a sort of harbour or roadstead between the mainland and Holy Island, and then proceeds more regularly north-west to Twadmouth. To the south-east of Holy Island, and more out at sea, lie some smaller islands, now all united to the county of Northumberland. Cumberland and Westinorekind, which form the great Lake District of England, constitute a block of 2,287 square miles, of which 1,523 belong to Cumberland and 764 to Westmoreland. Durham and Northumberland together constitute a block of 2,925 square miles, of which 1,952 belong to Northumberland and 973 to Durham. Some detached portions of the latter county have been added to Northumberland and Yorkshire by Act of Parlia- ment during the present reign and that of William IV. The acreage of Westmoreland is 487,680, of which only 180,000 acres are said to be arable, meadow, and pasture; while that of Cum- berland is 1,001,273, of which about 300,000 acres are mountain and lake. Enclosures and cultivation have very much diminished the amount of waste land since the beginning of this century. In the other group, Durham has an acreage of 622,476, of which "above 200,000 are waste above ground, but rich in mines below ;" of Northumberland, 1,249,299, of which about 800,000 acres are supposed to be arable, meadow, and pasture. The population of Westmoreland in 1861 was 60,817 (against 58,287 in 1851); and of Cumberland, 205,276 (against 195,492 in 1851); while that of Durham was in 1861, 508,666 (against 390,997 in 1851), and of Northumberland, 343,025 (against 303,568 in 1851); while therefore, in the former group the increase per cent. was only four and five, in the latter it was thirty and thirteen. The enormous increase in the population of Durham during the ten. years (1851-1861), owing to the expansion of the mining system, is especially remarkable, as a gravitation of population to the East of England balancing that to the West in Lancashire, the increase in which was twenty per cent. during the same period.

Westtnoreland—i.e., the West Moorland—is of very irregular shape, but may be said in a general way to be 40 miles in breadth and about the same in length. It is traversed by two great chains of mountains, eastward by a portion of what is called the great Pennine or central chain of England, and westward and towards the centre by what is called the great Cumbrian range— the valley of the Eden separating these two great ranges. The principal ridge of the former range enters the county at the north border to the south of Cross Fell, and extends through Mel- burn Forest to the confines of Yorkshire, the escarpment of this ridge being very steep on the west side, but on the other side, the ridge extending considerably beyond the limits of the county, and subsiding gradually into the valley of the Tees. Cumberland, whose greatest breadth is 35 miles and greatest length 80 miles, though not so uniformly mountainous as Westmoreland, "comprises the most important mountain masses in England. The principal ridge crosses the county from east to west. On the north a branch is thrown off from the main ridge at High Street. The north and north-west districts consist chiefly of low and gently undulating hills." The mountains of the whole lake district "form three well-marked groups. To the north is the mass of elevated land which, rising into Skiddaw and Saddleback, and cut off from the other ranges by Bassenthwaite Lake on the west and the vale of Greta on the south, may be called a mountain island. The other two mountain systems, those of Scawfell and Helvellyn, are separated by the deep, long valley, which extending north and south, attains at its highest point, in the Dunmail Raise Pass, an altitude of 750 feet above the sea. From this point two streams run northward by Thirlmere and the vale of St. John to the Greta, and southward through Grasmere, Rydal Water, and Windermere, to the western arm of Morecamb Bay. To the west of this valley are the mountain ranges which radiate from Scawfell. Imme rately to the east, the long ridge of Helvellyn looks down on Thirlmere, connecting itself at its southern extremity by the Griesdale Pass with the chain, which,

houses, whose foundations are still distinctly traceable. The camp on the west is the largest, and encloses 18 hut circles."

In the same neighbourhood, on a wild moorland backed by the Cheviot Hills, is the "Three-Stone Barn," so called from three upright stones about 100 yards distant from the brook, on the right, and near a farm of the same name. "Though only three stones are erect, a complete circle, 38 yards in diameter, remains of fallen stones, 11 in number, and half a mile higher

up the river is a solitary slate rock well known as the Grey Mare." The Mote Hills at Wark, Elsdon, Morpeth, and Halt- whistle, in the same county, have been attributed to the early British inhabitants. Those at Elsdon are "two remarkable mounds, separated by a deep ditch from each other, and from the land on the north and east. On the north and south they are defended by natural declivities." They have been explained as places of council or justice, and are said to resemble the place called the " Thring," which is still used for meetings in the Isle of Man. But they may be of Scandinavian origin. Several camps or villages of the British inhabitants, however, remain in this parish, "circular enclosures with moats and earthworks," which "are always to be found on the tops of hills commanding distant views, and almost always in sight of some little neigh- bouring village similarly situated." Possibly of similar origin are "the rocks with incised circles which have been found at Berwick, the Rowting Lynn, Stamforclham, and other places, the Bender stone and other gathering stones" in Northumber- land. Among the British remains in Cumberland and West- moreland may be mentioned Mayborough, near Penrith, "a cir- cular enclosure about 100 yards in diameter, formed by a broad ridge of rounded stones, heaped up to a height of 16 feet. The space thus enclosed is encircled with trees, and in the centre is a large roughly-hewn stone. It is said that many of the larger stones were taken away in the reign of Henry VI. for the repair of Penrith Church." No doubt this marks the place of a funeral ffiound, the centre stone being the remains of the cromlech under which the body or bodies were placed, as we find in remains of the same character. The Druidical theory is now quite given up by the most eminent antiquaries. There is a circle two miles from Keswick; and another in a very perfect state 7 miles north-east of Penrith, called Long Meg and her Daughters. This is one of the finest remains of the kind in England. The road from Eden Hall to Kirkoswald passes through it. "It consists of 67 enormous unhewn stones, forming a circle 350 feet in diameter. Some of the stones are limestone, some granite, and some green- stone. Long Meg, which stands about 30 paces without the circle, has four faces, with their angles directed to the four car- dinal points of the compass. It is 18 feet high, 15 in girth, and is computed to weigh 16/ tons. It is said by the country people that the stones cannot be counted twice alike, and that they are a company of witches transformed into stones on the prayer of some saint." There is a remarkable upright stone, called Helton Copstone, on the waste near Helton, between the rivers Lowther and Barnont. There is a circle also, 21 yards in diameter, called the Clock Stones, at the head of Ellersbeck, in the neighbourhood of ITllswater, and a circle at the foot of Black Combo, near the river Duddon.

The Roman period in the history of the Four Northern Counties is full of unusual interest, in consequence of the remains still existing of the great Roman Wall across the island, from the mouth of the Tyne to the Solway Firth—called Hadrian's Wall— and the various other remains of stations, &c., which are found scattered thickly through the whole district. Among those to whom the public is most indebted for their researches into and illustrations of this subject, we may mention particularly Dr. Collingwood Bruce (in his work called "The Roman Wall"), and Mr. John Hodgson Hinde, in the first volume of "The History of Northumberland," published by the Society of Antiquaries of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Our present difficulty in attempting to do any justice to the subject lies in selection and compression of materials, and in the questions as to the identification of the places mentioned in the Antoniue Itinerary and the other au- thorities for the period, with the present Roman remains. With respect to the places along the Roman Wall itself, Mr. Pearson tells us that "though we possess a list of the stations in order from .sea to sea, we can only identify thirteen out of twenty-three." In general, we follow Dr. Bruce, in our account of the Roman period, and of the formation of this barrier against the Northern invaders.

The Roman period in the counties we are now consider- ing begins properly with the campaigns and conquests of Agricola, which perhaps began in this district about the year 79. According to his son-in-law, 'radius, "many states which till that day had acted on the defensive, gave hostages, laid their hostility aside, and were environed with garrisons [priesidia] and castella, with so much calcula- tion and care, that no part of Britain, though hitherto un- noticed, could think itself secure." In a subsequent campaign Agricola is said to have strengthened the natural boundary to the Roman Empire in Britain along the isthmus between the waters of the Glota (Firth of Clyde) and the Bodotria (Firth of Forth) by garrisons. Agricola, however, was recalled by the Emperor Domitian in 84, and from that time to the time of Hadrian little is known of the state of Britain. The withdrawal then of Julius Severus, the governor of that Roman province, to subdue a revolt of the Jews, led to an insurrection of the Britons, which called for the personal presence of Hadrian, who came to Britain towards the close of the year 119. This event was com- memorated by a large brass coin struck by a decree of the Senate in the year 121. The chief but meagre authority for Iladaian's exploits in this island is 2Elius Spartianus, who flourished towards the end of the third century, that is, a century and a half later than the period of which he treats. Hadrian "went to Britain," he says, "where he corrected many things, and there was the first to draw a wall [inures] eighty miles in length, which might divide the barbarians and the Romans. The affairs of Britain being put in order, he passed into Gaul." It appears that he brought with him in his Britiali expedition the 6th Legion, which took the epithet of Victrix, and -occasionally also that of Pin Fidelis, and had its head-quarters at EBURACUM (York). Before leaVing Britain, Hadrian organized a fleet, and a marine cohort sta- tioned at one of the forts connected with the wall took its name from his family, " Cohors lia Classico." As he proceeded through the British province he seems to have opened or re- paired roads, &c. The Roman milestone found near Leicester is inscribed with its name, and he spanned the river Tyne at Newcastle with a bridge, which gave its name to the fortified station at its northern extremity, Pons "Elii,—the modern New- castle. The Senate at Rome commemorated his proceedings by a second brass coin, with a bust of the Emperor on the obverse, and a female figure on the reverse, surrounded by the legend "Britannia." This female figure "has evidently formed the de- sign after which the Britannia of the copper coinage of England has been modelled from the days of Charles IL until now." Britannia is represented as a female seated upon a rock, with head bare, a spear in her hand and a shield by her side. We do not know how long Hadrian remained in Britain, but on return- ing he gave the command of the province to his friend Aulus Platorius Nepos, a man of senatorial and consular dignity, whose name is mentioned in inscriptions found upon the wall. Antoninus Pius, who succeeded to the Em- pire, sent against the Britons (according to his biographer, Julius Capitolinus), as his lieutenant, Quintis Lollius Urbicus, who routed them, and curbed them by building "another wall of toil." This is what is now known as Graham's Dike, from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde. "It is a large earthen rampart, the inner part of it being in some places supported by a few courses of .stone." Many inscriptions have been found on it mentioning Antoninus Pius more frequently than any other emperor. One fragment has the name of Lollius Urbicus. The names of both Antoninus and of Lollius Urbicus appear on a stone found at the station of BREM.ENIUM, on a Roman road a few miles within the English border. On the Wall of Hadrian there are several memorials of the age of Antoninus, and an abundance of coins of the same period have been found in the line of the wall. Most of the coins found along the Antonine Wall belong to the reigns of Vespasian and Antoninus Pius, the former probably being connected with the presence of Agricola's troops. "The comparative absence of coins and inscriptions of a date subsequent to the time of the first Antonines warrants the opinion that the wall of the Upper Isthmus was not held with the per- tinacity with which that of the Lower was." A coin struck at Rome in 141 gives us on the obverse the laurelled head of Antoninus, and on the reverse Britannia mated upon a globe which floats upon the waves. She has a sword and spear, and a standard in her right hand. A coin struck in A.D. 155 represents Britannia deprived of her spear and apparently in an attitude of dejection, —perhaps a commemoration of some signal defeat of the Britons, of which we have no record. This is the coin relating to Britain most frequently discovered in England. Capitolinus is the only historian who gives any notice of Britain during the reign of Marcus Aurelius. Against the Britons, he says, was sent Calphurinus Agricola, and in some inscriptions found along the Wall of Hadrian, Cal- phminus is mentioned as Legate and Proprzetor. War again broke out in Britain and in Parthia, "and with great difficulty" the Emperor "overcame those fierce nations." In the reign of Commodus a severe disaster was suffered by the Romans in Britain, of which an account is given in the "Abridgment of Dion Cassius" by Xiphiline (in the eleventh century). "Some of the natives within that island having passed over the wall which divided them from the Roman stations, and besides killing a certain commander with his soldiers, having committed much other devastation, Commodus became alarmed, and sent Marceline Ulpius against them. This man was moderate and sparing, and though living always like a common soldier, as well in his food as in every other respect, when on service he was both high- minded and courageous; it was manifest he was not to be cor- rupted by gifts ; neither, indeed, was he affable or kind in his manners. He was the most wakeful of all generals. Such was Marceline, who grievously worsted the barbarians in Britain." "The Wall of Hadrian," observes Dr. Bruce, "beam traces throughout its whole length of having undergone some terrible disaster, long before the period of its final abandonment." On the fragment of a stone found at Cheaters, on the North Tyne, we may read the name " Ulpio," and on a fine altar discovered at Benwell we have the words "Sub Ulpio Marcell° Cos." On the triumph of Marceline, Commodus was saluted Imperator for the seventh time, and received from the Senate the title of Britannicus in 184, and several of his coins commemorate those victories. Pertinax, who obtained the purple on the death of Commodus, had been for some time Governor of Britain, and was succeeded in his command by Clodius Albinus, who became one of the candidates for the Empire, and fell in battle against L. Septimius Severus, the commander in Elyria, near Lyons in 197. Each rival was supported by the native soldiers of the province he had governed, and the contest was very severe, and for a long time continued doubtful ; for, says the historian Herodian, "the Britons yield nothing either in courage or in sanguinary spirit to the Illyrians." Severus, after this victory, sent Virius Lupus as his Legate to Britain, and the name occurs in inscriptions found at Ilkley and Bowes. No doubt the province had been much drained of troops for the expedition of Albinus, and the effects produced afford a curious forecast of the events of the last years of Roman Britain. Xiphiline writes, "In Britain, about this time, on account of the Caledonians having made preparations to assist the Maeatae, not abiding by their promises, and because at this period Severus was en- gaged in a war near home, Lupus was compelled to purchase peace from the Mae,atse at a great price, after having made a few prisoners." The Prefect wrote to the Emperor saying that the Britons were overrunning the country, carrying off booty, and laying everything waste, and that it needed a greater force and the Emperor's own presence. On this, Severna himself, accompanied by his wife, Julia Domna, and his two sons, hastened to Britain. He seems to have undertaken his expedition in the year 208, and died at York in February, 211. We get an account of his expedition from both Herodian and Xiphiline.

According to Herodian, the Emperor, though old and suffering from asthma, was still vigorous in mind beyond any youth. For the most part, he performed the march carried in a litter. The Britons, on learning the great force he was collecting against them, sent ambassadors with apologies and entreaties for peace ; but Severna, bent on obtaining a triumph, dismissed them without answer. Among other preparations, he endeavoured to make the marshy places stable by means of causeways. He explains this by stating that many parts of Britain, being constantly flooded by the tides of the ocean, became marshy, and in these the natives move about or swim immersed as high as their waists ; for going naked as to the greater part of their body, they contemn the mud, and they encircle their loins and necks with iron as ornaments. They puncture their bodies with pictured forms of every sort of animals, on which account they wear no clothing, lest they should hide the figures on their body. They are a most warlike and Eanguin- ary race, carrying only a small shield and a spear, and a sword girded to their naked bodies. Against these, Severus, taking with him his son Antoninus [Caracalla], advanced, passing beyond the rivers and fortresses which defended the Roman territory, the barbarians skirmishing and retreating. In the midst of his advance, however, Severna was himself reduced to inactivity by severe illness, and his son, to whom he entrusted the operations, was only anxious to conciliate the troops, and set them against his brother, who had been left in command at York. Severna died soon, as much from vexation as illness, and Caracalla made peace with the barbarians, receiving from them pledges of fidelity, and left the hostile country. The " Abridgment " of Xiphiline is important, as Dion Cassius was a contemporary of Severus. According to this, then, the two greatest tribes among the Britons were the Caledo- nians and the Ms.eate3; even the names of the others, it may be said, being merged in these. The Maeatm dwell close to that wall which divides the island into two parts, the Caledonians beyond them. Both inhabit a mountainous, waste, and marshy country, without towns, and live by pasturage, hunting, and on certain berries. Their government is chiefly democratical, they fight from chariots drawn by small swift horses, or on foot, being very swift in running and resolute when compelled to stand. He also describes their arms, much as Herodian, and their hardihood and life immersed in the marshes, and their food of bark and nuts in the woods, with prepared food for emergencies concentrated into the size of a bean. Ile speaks of the advance of Severus into "Caledonia," and of the terrible sufferings and losses of the invaders, "fifty thousand" perishing [probably an exaggeration], but Severus, it says, advanced notwithstanding nearly to the extremity of the island, and compelled the Britons before he left to purchase peace by yielding up no small portion of their terri- tory. But the peace was badly observed, and Severus ordered his soldiers to enter the hostile territory again, and put all they met to the sword ; in the midst of his enterprise he was taken off by a distemper, to which, it is said, his son Antoniuus, by his un- dutiful conduct, had very much contributed, dying at York. The victories of Severus were, of course, commemorated by coins.

Our historical authorities from the time of Severus become scanty in the extreme. "Several inscribed stones, recording the dedication of buildings of importance to the Emperors Elaga- bolus and Severus Alexander, which have been dug up not only in the stations on the Wall, but in those to the north of it, show that the Caledonians had been kept in check at this time. Then followed a period of struggles for the Imperial title in the pro- vinces of the West; of the temporary independence of Britain under Carausine and his successors, and of the incursions of the Franks and Saxons. We then come to the restoration of the Imperial authority in Britain, and the incursions of the Picti and Saxons and the Scoti and the Attacoti. Whether the first- named population were Kelts, descendants of the Caledonians and Maeataa, and their name had reference merely to their painted skins above referred to, or whether they belonged to any of the Scandinavian or Teutonic tribes who were making settlements in Britain dying all these centuries, we cannot pretend, with our present limited amount of data, to determine. The argu- ment from language seems rather in favour of the Keltic or British origin of the Picts ; the geographical argument and the more natural inference from the historical accounts, such as they are, seem more favourable to the Scandinavian theory. Who the Attacoti were must also remain a matter of the merest conjecture. The Scoti, however, undoubtedly were the wild population of the north of Ireland, who for some time gave the name "Scotia" to that island in contemporary writ- ings, and whose settlements in Britain, the north - west of Scotland, and some parts of the western coast of Eng- land and Wales attest. Magnentius the Frank, another upstart emperor, drained once more the military resources of Britain by leading its forces over to the Continent to support his pretensions, and on his death (in 353) his successful rival, Constantine, inflicted a bloody revenge on Britain. We next hear of the Picti as divided into two nations, the Dic,alidones and Vecturiones, both distinguished from the Scoti and Attacoti. In 368 and 369, the frontiers of the Roman Province were for a time re-established by Theodosius, father of the Emperor of that name, who is said to have restored (in integrum restituit) the civitates and castra prmsidiaria, and protected the frontier by watches (vigiliae) and advanced posts. The province thus rescued from the possession of the barbarians received, according to the historian (Arnmianus Mareellinus), the name of Valeutia, after the reigning emperor. What is meant, however, to be included in this term it is not easy to determine, for even London seems to have been threatened by the incursions of the marauders. It is, however, generally assumed by modern his- torians and geographers to mean the portion of the Roman Province between the Wall of Hadrian and the rampart of Antoninns, that part of the four northern counties to the south of Hadrian's Wall being included in the province of Maxima Casariensis. Certainly some of the stations to the north of Hadrian's Wall had been kept in a state of good repair during this period, the station of BREMENIII14 22 miles to the north of the Wall, having been thus kept to a period considerably subsequent

to that of Severus ; and the same may be said of the camp at Netherby, and others on the north of the Wall, though the garrisons may have been temporarily withdrawn. In 383 Maximus, who had served under the elder Theodosius in Britain, and was a favourite with the native troops, again carried off large numbers with him into Gaul, in his struggle for the Empire. After this, in the time of the Emperor Honorius, came the downfall of the Roman imperial power in Britain, and we are deprived of nearly every source of reliable information.

Some of the legions, no doubt, were recalled to the defence of Italy, but others probably remained and amalgamated with the native forces, and this may be the real foundation of the vague and doubtful accounts of the despatch of fresh legions from time to time to the assistance of the Britons, at a time when it was not likely any could have been spared from Italy. Gildas' account, which is trustworthy enough, as far as it goes, for the times immediately preceding his own, is not worth anything in a chronological point of view for earlier years, and pre- serves only the vague and incorrect traditions of succeed- ing generations. It is better to close the age of Imperial Roman dominion, in Britain with the account of Zosimus, the Greek pagan historian, who wrote somewhat later than the year 425, and who says, "The people of Britain, taking up arms, and braving every danger, freed their cities from the invading barbarians. And the whole Armoric and other provinces of Gaul, imitating the Britons, liberated themselves in like manner, expelling the Roman prefects, and setting up a civil policy according to their own inclination. This defection of Britain and the Keltic nations took place during the time of Constantine's usurpation [A.D. 407-411]; the Britons rising up in consequence of his neglect of the government." We may now, therefore, proceed to mention briefly those relics of the fallen dominion of Rome which remain in the stations, camps, Wall, and roadways of the four Northern Counties.

The Antonine Itinerary gives us four routes through these counties. One, which we may call the eastern line, passes from CATARACTONIS (Catterick Bridge), in Yorkshire, to the Wall, and then again on to BREMENIUM. A second route, which we may call the western line, continues the line, of which we have already spoken in our notice of Lancashire, from BREMETONAWE (Overborough), in that county, to a station called GLANOVENTA, which some identify with Cockermouth, and others with Ellen- borough, further on in the same north-westerly direction, near Maryport, on the West Cumberland coast. A third route led from CATARACTONIS, through a station called LIVATRIE, diagon- ally across the country, in a north-westerly direction to LUGUVA.LLUM, and so to the Wall, and thence further northward to a station called BLITUM BULGIUM, which was either on the extreme frontier of Cumberland or just within the Scotch county of Dumfries. The line of route from Catterick Bridge to LUGUVALLUM we may call the junction line. Another route from L IVATILE to LUGUVALIUM AD VALLum gives us an intermediate station, BROCAVUM, 22 miles from the latter place. These two routes from L 1VATR:E seem to coincide as far as a station called VERTEILE, 14 miles from LIVATR.E, and VERTER.+1 is by one route 42 miles from LUGUVALIUM AD VALLUM, and by the other 40 miles from LUGUVALLUM. Antiquaries are divided as to whether these two termini of the routes represent the same place. The route which gives 40 miles, it must be remarked, is the incorrect one to which we have had already frequently to refer, and there is certainly a blunder in it as to the distance between CATAMACTONIS and Livira.z. The whole point then depends on our identification of the stations in the two routes after VERTER.R. There were also other Roman roads of which remains can be traced,—one running from Ellenborough to Carlisle, and pass- ing through the remains of the Roman station or fortified town at Old Carlisle, and another, called the Maiden Way, leading off at right angles from what we have called the junction line of road, at Kirby Thure, to the Wall, at the point about half-way between the eastern and western lines of roadway. A roadway is traceable southwards from Broghton, a little to the west of the point where the Maiden Way leaves the junction line, which may have been a branch of what we have called the western line, and have formed a more direct communication between Lanca- shire and the Wall near Carlisle. The Maiden Way seems to have been continued northwards from the Wall ; and there are the remains of a roadway branching off from what we have called the eastern line of road, at Binchester, through Chester- le-Street, to the mouth of the Tyne, and the eastern extremity of the Wall, and also a roadway branching off from that to BRE- MENITat in a north-easterly direction. Such being the general dis-

tribution of the Roman roadways, it will be better to mention briefly the principal remains of camps and stations, and the names in the Itinerary and our other geographical authorities with which antiquaries have identified them, premising that many of these identifications are far from certain, and still matter of dispute. The most important Roman remains in Durham are at Lanches- ter. A great part of the village and church are built out of the

masonry of the Roman station, which is situated on a hill-top west of the village, and on what we have called the great eastern line of roadway, to the north of which the branch diverges to Chester-le-Street and the mouth of the Tyne. "This station was no common earthwork, but a building evidently of considerable architectural pretensions. It formed a parallelogram, measuring 183 yards north to south and 143 yards east to west, surrounded by a vallnm from 8 to 12 feet high, and, perpendicular on the outside, being built of ashlar work in regular courses, with stones 12 feet long and 9 inches deep. On the west of the vallum is a deep fosse, on the other side a sloping hill. The angles appear to have been guarded by round towers. The masonry bears marks of pick or chisel as fresh as when the stones were worked. The antiquities found here include a vast number of Roman altars. A part of the north rampart was destroyed for the sake of the stone in 1851 by the proprietor, but the remonstrance of the Archlealogical Institute prevented further depredations." Some antiquaries have supposed this to be the EPERAKON of Ptolemy the Geographer, but Mr. Pearson and others follow Camden in identifying it with the LONGOVICUS of the .1Votitia Imperil. "Some of the altars found here have inscriptions under the Emperors Gordian (commemorating a bath and basilica built in his time), Severus, and Carakalla. The discovery of coins of the Constautines and their successors to Valentinian may seem to prove that the station was scarcely abandoned before the final flight of the Roman eagle. Its destruction was probably owing to some sudden and violent catastrophe. The red ashes of the basilica and bath, the vitrified flooring, and the metallic substances, evidently run by fire, which occur among the rains, form a strong indication that the structure perished in flames." Roman remains have also been found at Chester-le-Street, whose name speaks sufficiently for its origin. "Its position on a great road, its size, its luxuries and arts, as instanced in its relics of altars, bronzes, and pottery, and finally, its having been selected as the site of a church establishment from the earliest times," would "also lead us to conclude that a thriving military town was established here from an early period of the imperial rule, and as we see from its coins, it was one of the last to be deserted in the Empire's fall." The Cone rivulet flows across its north entrance, and Simeon of Durham seems to speak of it under the name of Canega-ceaster. It was, therefore, probably, as Mr. Pearson con- jectures, the CoNc.Ixatos of the Natitia, and the COGINGES of the Geographer of Ravenna. Binchester, situated at the place where the road by Chester-le-Street diverges from the main eastern roadway, is also the site of a Roman station, and is generally identified with the VINOVIA of the Antonine Itinerary (twenty- two miles from CATARACTONIS) and the Irintooutox civitas of Ptolemy. "Its figure and extent seem nearly similar to those of the station at Lanchester, but the walls having been destroyed and the area enclosed and cultivated, its exact dimensions and form are very difficult to ascertain. It occupies the brow of an eminence about one mile north from Bishop Auckland, and rising on the west from the river I Veer. The wall inclines to the east, and commands an extensive prospect, particularly to the north and south. From the washing of the river at the south- west angle the bank has been partly undermined, and. the foundations of the vallum laid. open; these consist of very large blocks of stone placed transversely; some remains of stone aqueducts have also been discovered through the sinking of the soil." The antiquities discovered here have been very numerous, such as coins, altars, fragments of pottery, and rude sculptures. Two of the altars are inscribed. to the Des Metres.

Ebchester is the site of a Roman station, and is believed by most antiquarians to be the VINDOMORA of the Antonine Itinerary, a station on the main eastern roadway, 29 miles north from Irmorte. "Ebchester stands at the foot of a long descent, yet on the edge of a still steeper declivity. Its cottages and trees are scattered along a lofty brow, overhanging the green haugh-lands of the Dement," which separates the chapelry from Northumberland. "On the very edge of the steep the va,llum of a Roman station is," says Surtees, "still extremely distinct, and the little chapel of Ebchester, a freehold, and a few thatched cottages, stand within the very area of the ancient VEsnomoas, if VINDOMORA it be." The station was probably never so important as that of Lanchester. "The vallum and agger are most perfect on the north, where they stretch along -the very edge of the hill towards the river for 160 paces. The north-west angle is perfect, and part of the western agger, though cut through by roads and footpaths. On the south also the vallum is extremely distinguishable, just within the southern wall of the churchyard, part of which at least seems built out of the ruins of the Roman ramparts, and the moss-green crumbling walls of some neighbouring cottages on the west betray a. similar origin. The great road which leads to this station from the south, and which Warburton saw broad and distinct before the enclosures, may be still partially traced, and at the distance of a Roman mile and a half to the south (according to Dr. Hunter) the foundation ot a square watch-tower was discovered, about six or eight yards west of the military way ; the stones were cemented with lime; and in 1727 Dr. Hunter discovered a little -to the south of the south-west angle of the ramparts part of the aqueduct that supplied the baths." Many of the stones built up into the surrounding houses are inscribed, and are sepulchral or monumental; and other Roman relics have been discovered here.

The next station on this great east road is CORSTOPITUM, and a site for this has been found by the majority of antiquarians at Corchester, half a mile west of Corbridge, in Northumberland, where the brook Cor enters the 7'yne. The site has been long under cultivation, but coins and fragments of pottery are still frequently turned up by the plough. In the spring of 1861 the foundations of a Roman building, furnished with a hypocaust, were laid bare, but as seed-time approached they were again -covered up. The remains of the bridge by which the "great road- way crossed the river are still to be seen in front of the station when the water is low and clear. The tower of Corbridge Church is entirely composed of Roman stones, and several other build- ings are greatly indebted to the stones of the station. Several of the stones have inscriptions ; but the most remarkable relics found at Corchester are two altars, each with an inscription in Greek, each inscription forming a hexameter verse." The trans- lation of one is, "Of Astarte the altar me you see. Pulcher me dedicated ;" of the other, "To Heracles [Hercules], the Tyrian Diodora the high priestess ;" this latter altar is now in the British Museum. A very remarkable piece of antiquity has also been found in this neighbourhood,—a silver lanx or dish, the principal figures represented in which are Diana, Minerva, Juno, Vesta, and Apollo. No satisfactory information of its mythology Ens yet been given. Two other pieces of Roman plate have been found in the same neighbourhood, and a beautiful gold ring. The site of BREMENITIM, the last station in the Itinerary on this line of roadway which lies within our district (20 Roman miles from CoasTomum), has been proved by inscriptions to be the present High Rochester, seven miles and a quarter from Chew Green. It contains an area of four acres and a half, and stands 950 feet above the sea. This camp is the first we meet with south of the present boundary-line between Scotland and England, and is about 23 English miles from Corchester. "It has evidently been placed to guard the" great roadway, "in its passage across the river Rede. The strength of the position is great. On the north the ground rapidly sinks from it ; on the -west it slopes into the valley of the Sills Burn ; on the south, it falls rapidly down to the margin of the Rede. Its eastern side is the weakest, but here in ancient days a marsh, which is now drained, came to its defence." Most of the station has been excavated, and a full account will be found in Dr. Bruce's -work on the Roman Wall (third edition), to which our limited space compels us to refer our readers. Between eight and nine miles south of this station, on the eastern side of the great road- way, which (crossing the Wall) leads to Corchester, the remains of a station have been found, with the name on an altar drawn out of the river Rede, on the south bank of which it was situated, of HABITANCUM. This name does not occur in any of our authori- ties. The altar is dedicated to the god Mogon, of the Cod[eni] (a tribe of the Vangiones in whose province Mayence lay), and the first cohort of Vangiones was for some time in garrison here. The station is situated "in a valley, and is surrounded, though not closely, by hills on every side. The site of the -station is well marked. Its ramparts, its fosse, and the build- ings of the interior may all readily be traced." An elegantly carved tablet seems to have come from the western gate, and was erected by the fourth cohort of Gauls. A full account will be found in Dr. Brace's work.

Before speaking of Hadrian's Wall and its stations, it will be well to refer briefly to the other chief Roman remains of camps and stations in Cumberland and Westmoreland. Between

Brough and Kirkby Thure, in the latter county, the Roman road is "six yards wide, and on level ground is formed of three layers of stone, of the aggregate thickness of a yard, the lowest layer being the longest. In other places, it was sometimes made of gravel or of flint." The Maiden Way, as we have seen, branched off from this junction road at Kirkby Thure, and ran northward over the moors to Caervoran, one of the stations on the Roman wall in Northumberland. "Au ancient camp or fort, an oblong quadrangle of irregular form, stands on the line of the Roman way (which passes through the camp), east of Stanmoor, and on the borders of Yorkshire and Westmoreland, part of the camp being in each county. The fragment of Re Cross or Rere Cross, the ancient boundary-mark of the Scottish principality of Cumberland, and now of Westmoreland and Yorkshire, stands inside the camp. A square stone fort, called Maiden Castle, defended by two ramparts, an inner one of stone with a small ditch, and an outer one of earth with a ditch, stands on the line of the road, about two miles west of the camp just mentioned." The Antonine station or town, VEETERA: (already alluded to), is generally fixed at Brough, and BROYONAC.E, the next station on the junction roadway, at Kirkby Thore or There, "to the south- east of which village, on Speedy Moor, are the remains of a camp or fort called Whelp C'astle, at the place seemingly where the Maiden Way diverged from the principal Roman road. Near the south end of Dun Fell or Milbourn Forest, is a round camp or fort, surrounded with deep ditches, called Green Castle. An altar, with the inscription Deo Silvano,' was found here. There are several appearances of camps and roads on the waste ground of Milbourn Forest, and elsewhere. At Sandford, between Warcup and Appleby, near the line of the Roman road, are some barrows, two small camps, and the ruins of a small round fort, the walls of which are of immense thickness, and built with redstone strongly cemented with lime and sand." There was a Roman station at Kendal, one mile below the town, at Watercrook. "The line of the fosse may still be traced, and several altars, inscriptions, and other Roman remains have been found near it. This has latterly been considered to be the site of the station of CALecum, the next station after Overborough, or BEEMETONAC2E, on the great western roadway from Lancashire. At Ambleside there was also a Roman station, the remains of which in Camden's time were still very considerable, and described by him as "great ruins of walls and of buildings scattered about,"— " of an oblong form, defended by a fosse and a vallum, and a paved road leading to it." The traces of this work are now very slight, but urns, coins, and fragments of tease- lated pavement and pottery have been dug up." For this the identification made has been generally the station of ALONIS, on the same western line of road. We have already alluded to the conjectural identification of GLANOYENTA, or CLANOYENTA, of the Antonine Itinerary and the Ravenna Geographer (the GLAN- NIBANTA of the Notitia), with the remains of a station at Ellen- borough, in Cumberland. This station, according to Lysons, is "on the north side of the mouth of the little river Ellen, on a hill above Maryport It is a square of 400 feet, surrounded by a fosse and double rampart, commanding a view of the coast on either side of the Solway Frith and of the sea to a considerable extent." "The ramparts of the station," observes Dr. Bruce, "are strongly developed, and most of its gateways may be dis- tinguished. The sill of the eastern gateway is grooved by the action of chariot wheels. Within the station is a well encased with circular masonry." "Close by the banks of the river Ellen is also a small entrenchment, containing an area of about an acre and a half. It is in a low and sheltered position, and has probably been a retreat for invalids." Very numerous and im- portant remains have been found at the Ellenborough station, of which a fall account will be found in Dr. Bruce's beautiful work on the Wall. Another site for the station of GLANOVENTA. has been found by some antiquaries at Papeastle, a mile to the north of Cockermouth, about seven miles south-east of Maryport, where there are the nearly obliterated outlines of a Roman camp and the remains of a Roman road connecting the two stations. The town of Cockermouth is believed to have risen out of the ruins of this station, and the older parts of Cocker- mouth Castle are composed of Roman stones, some inscribed, two inscriptions referring to events in the year 241. There are Roman remains at a place called Barrow Walls, on the north bank of the river Derwent and about half a mile from Workington ; and further to the south, not far from Whitehaven, at Moresby, are the well-defined remains of a Roman station, occupying a strong and commanding position. Camden identifies this with same antiquary places the site of the CASTRA EXPLORATOBUII of We have so often referred to the almost hopeless obscurity of

the Itinerary, the transition period between the downfall of the Roman Imperial To describe the Wall across the island in detail would require power in Britain, and the establishment of the Anglo-Saxon princi- much more space than we can afford. We are compelled, there- palities, that we need scarcely say that the history of the Four fore, to avail ourselves of an abridged account of the results of Northern Counties during that period is equally doubtful. We modern investigation supplied in Mr. Murray's Handbook for have already told all that we can safely rely on respecting the Northumberland. It consists of three parts :—(1) a stone wall, early history of the Angle kingdom of Northumbria, within which strengthened by a ditch on the north side ; (2) a turf wall or were included the counties of Durham and Northumberland, and vellum, on the south of the atone wall ; (3) stations, castles, watch- the south. eastern part of Scotland between the Tweed and the towers, and roads; these lie for the most part between the stone Firth of Forth. The counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland wall and earthen rampart. The stone wall extends from Wallsend have a different history, over which obscurity hangs down to a much on the Tyne to Bosvness on the Solway, a space which Horsley later period. Their peculiar relation to the kingdom of Scotland estimates at 68 miles and three furlongs. It is built of huge has increased the doubts and difficulties attending the subject by blocks of stone, narrowed at one end, so as to give them a firm adding the exaggeration and perversion of national prejudice. hold, with mortar patired in between. The Wall follows the line The controversy as to the dependent relation of Scotland to of the country in its ever changing up-hill and down-bill; when England has been mixed up almost inextricably with the question the incline is gradual, the courses of the Wall follow it, but when of the relations of Strathclyde, Cumbria or Cumberland with the ground is very steep, the courses of the Wall continue the former kingdom, and English and Scottish historians have straight. The turf wall falls short of the stone wall by about each given their own version of events, in such a manner that three miles at each end, terminating at Newcastle on the east, between them the true history of Cumberland and Westmoreland and at Drunburgh on the west. The two walls proceed from one is thrown into a state of uncertainty. All we can pretend to side of the island to the other in a nearly direct line, and gener- do is to point out a few of the leading facts which appear to be ally within 60 or 70 yards of each other; but the vellum makes reliable.

fewer deviations from a right line than the stone wall. In When the vallum of Antoninus between the Firths of Clyde and no part of its course is the Wall entirely perfect; but Bede Forth and the wall and vellum of Hadrian or Severus between the describes it as eight feet in breadth and twelve in height. Solway Firth and the mouth of the Tyne, were broken down Later writers give it a greater elevation. The thickness of by the wild tribes, it is certain that a part of these invaders went the wall varies from six feet to nine-and-a-half feet. A broad by the name of Picts and another by that of Scots. The latter deep fosse accompanied it along its whole length, and this may certainly came from Ireland, of which the name was for some time stall be traced with trifling interruptions from sea to sea. The Scotia, and the settlement on the north-west coast of Scotland from velum, or turf wall, consists of three ramparts and a fosse, one which the later Scottish kingdom is deduced was probably made at rampart close to the south edge of the ditch, and the two other this time. They also appear (from the etymology of the names of the Moaatust of the Notitia, and Horsley with AEI. The and longer ones, one to the north, the other to the south, at the station of BROCANUM, on one of the two Antonine routes from distance of about twenty-four feet. At intervals along the LAVATR.E, which we have called junction lines, is generally Wall, averaging nearly four miles, were the stationary (quad- identified with Brougham, in Westmoreland, by which a Roman rangalar) camps ; these were like military cities, with narrow causeway passes ; others place it at Brough, in the same county. streets intersecting each other at right angles, and erected The site of the station of GALANA is quite uncertain ; some where an abundant supply of water might be obtained. In place it at Keswick. A site for VOBEDA, which the Itinerary addition to these, Castella, or Mile Castles, were placed at the places fourteen miles from LUGUVALLIIM, has been assigned at distance of a Roman mile from each other. These were quad- Plumpton, or Old Penrith, " called in the locality by the common rangular buildings, placed (with but two exceptions) against the name of Castlestands, about thirteen miles south of Carlisle, southern face of the wall, and usually measuring from sixty feet where is a large station. Enough of the eastern gate remains to seventy feet in every direction. The Mile Castles were pro- to show that it had been a double portal. There are indications bably all open to the north, and the fact that these were about of suburban buildings, probably of the Roman period, on the eighty in number is held to strengthen the idea that the Wall west of the station, and about a quarter of a mile south is a well was rather intended as a military outpost than as a means of cased with Roman masonry." At Old Carlisle, nearly two miles defence. Between the Mile Cashes, four subsidiary buildings, south of Wigton, are the remains of a large station, the four generally denominated turrets or watch towers, were placed. gateways of which are well defined. The rivulet Wiza runs in a These were little else than stone sentry-boxes, and it is with deep ravine immediately below the camp on its west side, and at great difficulty that they can now be traced. A Military Way, a remoter distance on its south also ; the remains of suburban about seventeen feet wide, ran within theWall from castle to castle, buildings may still be seen outside the walls. Several inscribed and from station to station, not following exactly the line of the stones have been found in that station, an altar belonging to the Wall, but taking the esaiest path between the two points. Such

time of Commodus, &c. being the general character of the Wall, of the parts of which the

The modern Carlisle appears to have been the site of a Roman origin of the stone wall is variously assigned to Hadrian and to station. Bede .seems to identify it with Lusurauum, for he Severus, we cannot attempt any description of the remains of says that the " civitas Lugubalia " was called corruptly by the different stations, &c., on the Wall. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, the Angles Luel, and mentions its walls and Roman fountain. however, the PONS IE tit of the Romans, deserves a minute's notice If so, its modern name is a modification of " castra (or caer)-luel." in this connection. The Notitia tells us that it was governed by " Extensive ruins of the ancient city lie buried beneath the a tribune of a cohort of Cornovii, but the only inscription die- modern Carlisle. Seldom is the ground penetrated to any depth covered here which mentions any military at all speaks of the without the discovery of ancient remains, Sa,mian ware, and first cohort of Thracians. " There are scarcely any traces of Roman coins." In Leland's time (Henry VIII.) traces of the Roman times remaining, the stones of the Wall here having ancient city were frequently discovered in digging ; but, he says, been employed in the erection of the castle and other buildings. "the whole site of the town is sore changed, for the places where In digging the foundations of the county court-house in 1810, a. the great streets and edifices were are vacant and garden plots." Roman well was discbvered, with the shaft of a Corinthian Passing north of the Wall, "to the south of Middleby Kirk, in pillar, and other antiquities. When the old bridge was removed the county of Dumfries, are the evident traces of a Roman in 1771, several fragments of Roman masonry were found, station, which has yielded a number of important inscriptions, which sanctioned the belief that it had been built upon the There are also some remains of a building ascribed to the same ancient foundations of the bridge of Hadrian. Figures of period, about three miles to the north-west of this camp, at the Hercules and Mercury have been discovered ; and in removing (in top of a solitary, flat-topped hill, called Burnswark. This may 1843) the Whitefriars' tower, which stood on the brow of the hill have been an exploratory outpost. At the foot of the hill, on overhanging the close, and formed part of the walls of New-. the south, are the remains of a legionary camp in good preserva- castle, two Roman altars were discovered, deep in the ground, tion, and on the north face of the hill are also the marks (less amongst a mass of Roman roofing-tiles, one of which is dedi- distinct) of a similar entrenchment. Horsley has identified the cated to Silvanus. No remains of the stone Wall are seen till camp at Middleby with the station at BLATIIM BULGIUM of the after the next station is passed, but its course is marked for the Itinerary. A Roman roadway from Middleby to Netherby, greater part of the way by the fosse on the north side. There and thence to Carlisle, is said to be very certain, and at Netherby, were traces of a Mile Castle on the top of ‘Westgate Hill in where the remains of a Roman station were once very visible, Horsley's time. The vallum makes its first appearance directly and where numerous inscribed stones have been discovered, the the Western suburbs are-passed. places) to have made less important and permanent settlements in what we now call South-Western Scotland, and on the north-west- ern shores of the present England and Wales (particularlyAnglesea). But the main population of Cumberland and Westmoreland no doubt remained British or Romano-British in the sense in which we used the term in speaking of the Roman provinces of Britain. The numerous stations and the neighbourhood of the garrisons along the Wall must have infused a considerable Roman element into this part of Britain, though the Keltic blood and even the Keltic chieftainships may have survived to a great degree unaffected by this among the hills and lakes of that district. When the Angle or Teutonic invaders, or settlers, obtained the ascendancy in the north-east of Britain and the south-east of the present Scotland, and gradually founded the great principalities of Deira and Bernicia, the remains of Roman organization, joined to the natural impediments of the marshes and forests of Lancashire and Cheshire and the bills and lakes of Westmoreland and Cumberland, long presented an impene- trable barrier to the advance of the Angle armies westward, and the fluctuating frontier between the two races for some time rather trenched on the present counties of Northumberland, Durham, and York, than diminished the limits of Cumberland and Westmoreland. For some time probably there was a court, or seat of government, at Luguvallum, or Led (Carlisle). very much on the plan of the Roman prefecture; and the tales of the glories of King Arthur's Court at "merry Carlisle" may have had some foundation in truth, irrespectively of any doubts as to the personality of Arthur himself. Gradually the tide of conquest rolled westward, and nearly the whole of Lancashire and the east of Westmoreland fell under the Angle yoke. Still, however, there remained a Prince of Westmoreland, or Westmere, and more than one independent British prince of the territory between Morecambe Bay and Solway Firth, as well as between the Solway and the Clyde, and no doubt some sort of general alliance or confederacy (temporary and intermittent) existed among these principalities against their common foe. But when the Angle power encroached sensibly on the southern portion of this district, and the principalities north of the Solway became engaged in a struggle for ascendancy with the rising principality of the Scots, the latter became naturally drawn into the contest between the independent British principalities and their Teutonic enemies ; and the southern principalities often fell into a tributary position either to the more powerful Princes of Galloway, or to the Princes of the Scots, and bowed their neck also under the supremacy of the more powerful of the Anglo-Saxon monarchs. As there was at that time no kingdom of Scotland, it seems almost a vain pursuit to attempt to deter- mine how far the kingdom north of the Tweed was under the suzerainty of the Anglo-Saxon Kings. The Lothians certainly were long part of Anglo-Northumbria, and the Brito-Pictish Princes of Galloway, no doubt, often owned the Anglo-Saxon supremacy, and the probability is that at times the same was the case with the princes of the Scots ; but little stress can be laid on these submissions. Eventually, the Anglo-Saxon and Danish Princes seem to have found it impossible to maintain an immediate sovereignty over the district between the Tweed and the Firth of Forth, and to have compromised their claims by ceding this to the Princes of the Scots, probably retaining a nominal superiority in respect of that part of Bernicia, and also in respect of, at least, that part of Cumbria or Strathclyde which lay south of the Solway Firth, which from that time was generally, with occasional intermissions, held as an appanage of the English Crown, by some member of the royal family of the Scots—in later times generally by the heir to the Crown of Scotland. The little impression the early Angle invasions made on the counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland is shown by the fact that Mr. Kemble can discover only six names of " marks " or early settlements in the former county, and only two in the latter. The two counties suffered much during the Scandinavian inroads and conquests. No doubt some of these invaders penetrated into them from Northumbria, and crosses and other remains prove that Danish colonies were permanently established there ; but their principal Scandinavian colonization is believed to have been Norwegian rat her than Danish (whether of an early or later date), for Norwegian names are common in those counties, "and among the mountains we find a nomenclature the origin of which seems to be purely Norwegian." The Norwegian colonists are believed by most to have been derived from the Isle of Man, and the years 945 to 1000 are set down as the date of this emigration. But the whole question of the time and distribution of the Scandinavian settle- ments in North England is wrapped in doubt and obscurity, and the question of the origin of the Picts may have something to do with it. "Cumberland," as it was then called, was sometimes granted by the Norman and Plantagenet Princes to great barons of their own, and many disputes and much confusion as to facts arise from this cause. Thus William the Conqueror granted it to Ranulph de Meschines, but is said to have recalled his grant, and to have given compensation to the King of Scot- land for the loss of the principality by the grant of a tract of land between Cumberland, Stanmore, and the Tweed. Under William Rufus, in 1091, Malcolm invaded the northern counties of England during the absence of William in Normandy, but on the return of the latter a great battle on the Wear is said to have been averted by the submission of Malcolm and the restoration of the manors in England granted him by the Con- queror. "Next year William made a military progress to the north, and placed a colony at Carlisle. Some new quarrel seems to have arisen out of this ; and when the Scotch King visited the Court at Gloucester soon afterwards, he was required to do the King right according to the sentence of the English Barons, and was not admitted to William's presence. He retired in disgust, and again invaded Northumbria, where the Earl Robert of Mowbray surprised and slew him." This event was followed by a contest in Scotland for the succession, between the Scotian and Pictish party, who supported Donald Bane, and the Anglo-Norman party (supported by England), who advocated the claims of Malcohn's sons. During the troubles of the reign of Stephen, David, King of Scotland, in league with Malcolm, and with some Anglo- Norman exiles, claimed the earldoms of "Northumberland and Huntingdon, which had once belonged to his wife's father, Weltheof, and the fief of Cumberland," and raised a large and wild army to assert his pretensions, who committed great barbarities in the unlucky northern counties, and Stephen being unable to effect anything against them, "captured Carlisle, and proposed to the Bishop of Durham to swear fealty to the Scotch King." The Barons and people, however, were summoned to a holy war by the Arch- bishop, with a consecrated standard, and at Northallerton (the battle of the Standard) defeated the motley invaders (September 22, 1138). But the victory "was not properly followed up ; the men of Yorkshire were glad to return to their homes ; and North- umberland, and Cumberland, and Westmoreland remained a debateable territory, rather Scotch than English." Next year (April 9, 1139) peace was conclude' at Durham, and it was agreed that Prince Henry of Scotland should receive Northum- berland as a fief, except the fortresses of Bamborough and New- castle, for which compensation was to be made. Such of, the Barons as chose might do homage to Prince Henry, reserving their fealty to Stephen, and the county was to retain its customs. Prince Henry is also said by some to have been invested with the principality of Cumberland, and they say that a claim of the Earl of Chester, in consequence of the grant to Ranulph de Meschines, was compromised by the grant to the Earl of the honour of Lancaster, and the hand of one of Prince Henry's daughters. In 1149 Stephen and David were again in arms against each other, the one at York, the other at Carlisle ; and in the follow- ing year David and. the Earl of Chester entered into a league with Prince Henry of Anjou at Carlisle, and the Angevin Prince was knighted by David, and promised him, if he gained the Crown of England, to confirm to him his English territories. In 112, David and his son, Prince Henry (who died that year), met John, the Pope's legate, at Carlisle, and David died in that city, and was succeeded by his grandson, Malcolm IV. Malcolm was compelled to cede the counties of Cumberland and Northum- berland to Henry II. in 1157, or according to some, only North- umberland. Taking advantage of the civil wars between Henry IL and his sons, William the Lion of Scotland invaded Cum- berland in 1173, and besieged Carlisle, which, reduced to extremi- ties, had agreed to capitulate if not relieved by a certain day, when William was surprised and taken prisoner at Alnwick, and the Scottish King lost all his English possessions, and agreed to hold Scotland for himself and his heirs from Henry and his heirs. This treaty was annulled by Richard I. for a sum of money, and it was agreed that William should revert to the rights of his brother Malcolm. During the civil wars of John, Alexander of Scotland, in 1216, invaded Cumberland, and besieged Carlisle, and the city was surrendered to him on the 6th of August by order of the Barons, but the castle was not then taken. By a treaty with Louis, the French Pretender, to the Crown, and the English Barons in rebellion, Alexander's claims were recognized to Northumberland, Cumberland, and West- moreland. On the pacification after the accession of Henry III., Carlisle was surrendered to the English, and although the Scottish King made repeated claims to Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmoreland, he appears not to have obtained possession of them ; and at last, in 1237, at a conference held at York, he gave up his claim, accepting in lieu lands of the yearly value of £200, to be held of the King of England by the annual render of a falcon to the constable of the castle of Car- lisle. These lands were to be in the counties of Cumberland and Northumberland, and not within the precinct of any garrison town. They were not assigned till the year 1242, when the manors of Penrith, Langarthby, Great- Salkeld, Sowerby, and Carlattan were so granted, and thus terminated the struggle between the Anglo-Normans and the Anglo-Scots for the pos- session of the country north of the Humber and the Mersey. Neither Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, or Westmore- land is described in the Domesday Survey ; but the south of Westmoreland, with part of Cumberland, is included within the West Riding of Yorkshire. This shows the ambiguous position which three of them still occupied ; while the case of Durham had a peculiarity of its own. 'The monastery of Lindisfarne, from which the see of Durham eventually sprang, was founded in early Angle times, and was closely connected with the life of St. Cuthbert, who from a monk within its walls became ultimately prior and bishop. In 875 the monks fled from Lindisfarne before the Danes to Ireland, and afterwards moved to Melrose, and then to Chester-le-Street, where a new see was erected, and all the lands between the Tyne and Tees set apart as the patrimony of St. Cuthbert, and the bishop invested with full powers for their jurisdiction. The second bishop added Belling-Wilshire (in the heart of Northumberland) to the domains of the see. In 987 the monks were again obliged to fly before the Danes, and took refuge for three years at Ripon. On their return from that retreat the progress of the monks is said to have been miracu- lously arrested by the body of the saint, and their future seat determined by revelation to .be " Dunholme ;" and there, on a promontory almost encircled by the Wear, the body of the saint was deposited in a tabernacle of branches ; then in a church of wicker-work, and afterwards in a cathedral. To Canute is attributed the first erection of the see into a county- palatine transferring the immediate allegiance of the inhabi- tants to the Bishop, and assigning to him the duty of defending the Border. Into the history and vicissitudes of the long line of prince-bishops who followed it is impossible for us to enter, and we have already indicated some of the events of the Anglo- Norman and Plantagenet periods in which the county was con- cerned. Among the most remarkable of the earlier Bishops were Ralph Flambard (1099-1128), the favourite of William Rufus, who in his latter days did much for his see, and built Norham Castle, Kepye Hospital, and parts of the Cathedral and Castle of Durham ; Hugh Pudsey (1153-1195), who was compelled by Henry IL to render a detailed account of the military tenures of the palatinate, and in consequence conspired against him with the young princes, and had his castles con- fiscated and that of Northallerton razed to the ground ; after the death of Henry, however, he purchased the earldom of Northumberland and wapentake of Sadberge, and during the Crusades was left as Chief Justiciary and Viceroy over all parts north of the Humber ; he was imprisoned in the Tower, how- ever, by his rival, the Bishop of Ely, and only released on resigning his temporal powers. On the King's return he repur- chased Sadberge, and spent much money on public works (said to have been collected for the ransom of Richard), and gave the city of Durham its first municipal charter. Antony Beck (1283-1310), by his ostentatious display of his power and wealth drew down on him the jealousy of Edward I., who stripped him of his temporalities, which had been much increased in value by the confiscation of the lands of Bruce and Baliol (the former including the manors of Hartness and Hartlepool, and the latter Barnard Castle, on the Tees), which were bestowed on the Cliffords and Beauchamps. After the death of Edward the bishop was restored to his dignities, but in lieu of the property given to these two families he was made King of Man, and by the Pope was created titular patriarch of Jerusalem. Under him the palatinal power of Durham reached its greatest height, and his liberality in endowments, ctc., was unbounded. The last bishop who was a prince-palatine was William Van Mildest, who occupied the see between the years 1826 and 1836. By an Act passed in the 27th of Henry VIII., the temporal jurisdiction of the bishops had been considerably abridged, and by the 6th and 7th of William IV., the whole of the jurisdiction of the Bishops was taken away and vested in the Crown. The history of Durham during the middle ages is almost entirely occupied, as is that of all the Northern Counties, with the Border warfare and the various national wars between England and Scotland, during which all alike suffered much. One of the Scotch invasions terminated in the battle of Neville's Cross, near Durham, in 1346, when King David (Bruce) was made prisoner. When the King of Scotland invaded England in support of the pretensions of Perkin 1Varbeck, Norham Castle was besieged by him and reduced to extremities, but relieved by the Earl of Surrey. The religious establishments of Durham were not richly endowed, except in the case of the priory of Dur- ham. In the rebellion of the Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland in favour of the Roman Catholic religion, they occupied Durham, but soon again abandoned it. In North.. umberland the principal events besides what we have already mentioned were the battle of Otterburn in 1387, in which Douglas was slain, and Henry Percy captured and led away into Scotland ; the battle of Homildon or Humbleton, near Wooler, in 1402, when the Earl of Northumberland and Henry Percy, with the Earl of March, defeated the Earl of Douglas, who was taken prisoner ; the battle of Pepperdean in 1436, in which Hotspur's son was defeated by Earl Douglas ; and the capture of Alnwick in 1462, and of Bamborough in 1464, by Margaret of Anjou, whose forces were soon afterwards routed at Iledgeley Moor, near Alnwick, and at Hexham. In 1513 a large body of marauding Scots, under Lord Hume, were cut off at Millfield, near the Till, a little south of Ford Castle. Then came the invasion of England by James IV. of Scotland, who compelled Norham Castle to surrender, and took and partly destroyed Wark, Ford, and Etal castles, but was defeated and slain at Flodden, about two miles west of the scene of Hume's defeat Forthe defence of the Marches of England and Scotland Wardens- were appointed, who held special commissions from the Crown.. They were sometimes two, sometimes three, on each aide of the Border. In England the office was generally filled by the most powerful of the northern nobles, especially the Earls of North- umberland and Westmoreland, until in later times it became an office of peculiar qualification, supported by allowances from the Crown and regular troops. The Warden of the East Marches resided at Alnwick or Berwick, that of the Middle Marches at Harbottle, and of the West at Carlisle The Wardens had courts. for the punishment of treason and felony, and were Captains- General in case of war. The office of Lord Warden of the Marches, which had existed during all these wars with Scotland, fell into disuse soon after the union of the two Crowns under James I., "the garrison was reduced and the Border lost ita military character."

Both Northumberland and Durham were the scene of many marches both of Scotch and English armies during the civil wars of the reign of Charles I. The Royalists were the stronger party in Northumberland ; in Durham parties were more equally balanced- Cumberland experienced much the same fortunes as the sister counties of the north during the wars between England and Scotland. Edward L died in 1307 at Burgh Marsh, near Car- lisle, on his march to Scotland. The county shared in the struggles of the reign of Charles L, and was the scene of several military operations during the Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745, in which latter rebellion Carlisle was for some little time in the hands of the insurgents, and was the scene of several of the sub- sequent trials and executions. William the Conqueror created the baronies of Westmoreland, and Kendal. Appleby Castle was. taken by William of Scotland, and the town destroyed in 1173 and the town was again destroyed by the Scots in the reign of Richard IL In the civil wars of Charles L the castle of Appleby was occupied for some time by a Royalist garrison, the Cavaliers being very strong in that and the neighbouring county of Cumberland. In the rebellion of 1745, there was some fight- ing at Kendal on December 14, between the townspeople and the insurgents, in their retreat towards Scotland; and a few days after there was a rather severe skirmish at Clifton, on the road to Penrith, between their rear-guard and the Duke of Cum- berland's army.

Of the leading families of Northumberland eleven still remain, which are mentioned by Grey in 1649 as claiming to data from the Conquest :—The Ogles of Ogle Castle, now of Eglingham and Kirkley ; the Ridkys of Willimoteswick, now of Blogden and Parkend; the Middletons (now Monks) of Belsay; the alitfords of Mitford; the Claverings of Callaley; the Swinburnes of Cep- heaton ; the Cra'sters of Cra'ster ; the De Licks of Felton (now Lisles of Acton); the Selbys of Twizel ; the Cresswelb (indirectly) of Cresswell ; and the Haggerstons of Haggerstone (now of Ellingham). Among the ancient families now extinct in this

county we may mention, in the reign of Henry IL, De Bulmer ; Be Bumsey ; Fitz-Alwin ; Fitz-Odard ; Be Merley ; De (hen- vile; Bertram ; Fitz-tWilliam ; De Burun.; Be Worcester ; Fitz-Adrecl; De M.orwick ; Fitz-Roger; De Tession ; Be Vesci ; De Bailliol ; Be Bolbec ; D'Umfraville ; Fitz-Waldief ; Fitz- Eilef ; Be Hilton ; De Troehelai ; Fitz-Gamel ; De Essington ; Be Calvaleia ; De Bodenhal; and Fitz-Liulf. These represent the early feudal lords of Northumberland. Among the leading families in the reign of Edward II. we may mention Rydel ; Grey ; De in Vale ; De Fenwick ; Be Benton ; De Lilleburne ; Maudut ; Be Horoseley ; Heyroun ; Be Clifford ; De Esselington ; Be Luker ; Be Borudon ; Botacomb ; and Be Shottelington. To these we may add a few names which appear prominently in the Tudor period :—Ratcliffe; Witherington ; Thornton ; Musgrave ; Anderson ; Hodgson ; Hurd ; Errington ; Coniers ; Usher ; Charlton ; Robson; Milburn ; Dodd ; Bowes ; Lawson ; Swinhoe ; Reveley ; Carr ; Waffle; Rutherfurth ; Ord ; Forster ; Bradford ; Ilebburn ; Collingwood ; and Carlisle. The chief families now are Percy ; Grey ; Bennet (Earl Tankerville) ; Wentworth-Beaumont ; Hastings of Seaton-Delavel ; Monck, of Belsey ; White-Ridley ; Liddell, Brandlings ; Bell ; Ogle ; Ord ; BlaPlrett, &c. Of the bishopric of Durham, among the principal tenants of the Bishop in 1166, were the families of Be Coneres ; De Mandevill ; De Vesci ; De Bulem ; Fitz-Osbert ; Fitz-William ; Be Helton ; Be Eschanlande ; Fitz-Richard; Be Mustieres ; Be Fisburn ; Be Hopped ; De Ilepplingdene ; De Wirecestre ; De Kevelane ; Burdun ; Be Bremba ; Pappede ; Be Torp ; Haget, &c. In the reign of Henry VL we may notice, among other names of families in Durham, those of Eure ; Bowes ; Lambard ; Lumley ; Blaykestone ; Trollope ; fled- worth; Claxton ; Bellyingham ; Strangways ; Jakson ; Tayl- boys ; Fetherstonhagh ; Dalton ; Spence ; Brakenberry ; Sharp ; Gower ; Forester ; Menell ; Colvylle ; Cook ; Gyfford ; Wylton ; Dixson ; Ravensworth ; Coltman ; Baynbrigg ; Madyson ;

Wakerfield ; Be Wotton, &e. From "The Heralds' Visitations"

during the Stuart and Tudor periods we may take the following additional names :—Tonge ; Miclleton ; Perkinson ; Eden ; Wrenn ; Hutton ; Heron ; Maude ; Blackett ; Sarteys ; Playce ; Elstobbe ; Lambton ; Cheytor ; Lawson ; Thornlinson ; Hay- thorpe ; Shaftoe ; Blenkensoppe ; Balmer; Selwyn, Wharton ; Booth ; Punshon ; Tempest ; Wray; Selby ; Beckwith ; Hilyard ; Hutchinson; Tunstall ; Sidgewick ; Lambert ; Dodsworth ; Trotter ; Watson ; Freville ; Birkbeck ; Maire ; Vane ; &c. At present the dominant families are Vane and Vane-Tempest ; Lambton ; Shafto ; Bowes ; Pease ; Farrer ; and Liddell.

Cumberland was divided after the Norman Conquest into eleven baronies, originally granted to De Meschines; Waldrief, or Waltheof ; D'Estrivers ; Be Vallibus, or Vaux ; Be Brundaa, or Brundey ; Boyvill ; Lyolf ; Fitz-Swein; and Engaynes. The families of Nevile ; Fitz-Duncan ; Lucy ; Multon (who took the name of Lucy); Percy; Wharton ; De Logis ; Wigton; Morvill ; Dacre ; Howard; Estoteville ; Wake ; Clifford ; Wyndham; Bentinck ; Cavendish, and others afterwards succeeded to por- tions of these baronies. The great Clifford family (Earls of Cumberland) are historical, and so are the unfortunate Rad- cafes, Earls of Derwentwater. Among other families may be mentioned the Penningtons ; Haringtons ; Hays ; De Hercla, . or Harcla; Muagraves ; Grahams, of Esk and Netherby; Curwen; Daiston; Barwis ; Beauley, or Bewley ; Blencove ; Brougham, Christian ; Denton; Dykes ; Fetherstonhaugh ; Halton; Hudle- stone ; Irton ; Leathes; Patrickson ; Ponsonby; Sandes, or Sandys ; Stanley ; Warwick ; Whelpdale; Allonby ; Allerby ; Awsthwaite ; Beauchamp; Broughton; Bran; Carden; Corby; Copeland ; Dundrow ; Greenhow ; Gosforth ; Grindale; Irby ; Langrigg; Milton; Moresby; Orion; Purton; Redman; Stavely; Stapleton ; TMol ; Vipont ; Aglionby ; Salkeld ; Sta,nwix; Threlkeld ; Lowther ; Lawson; &c. The larger number of these families are now extinct. The leading families now are the Howards ; Wyndhams; Lowthers; Grahams ; Stanleys ; Irters ; and Marshalls.

Westmoreland was so closely connected with Cumberland in all respects that many of the families were common to both. We may mention as belonging to Westnioreland, besides the Veteriports and their successors—the Cliffords, who ruled the county from Appleby, Brough, and Brougham Castles ; and the Neirles, Fames, and Lowthers; Be Preston; De Kennet; De Middleton; Leving, or Lewing; Bellingham ; Brathwaite; Crukenthorpe ; Dalston ; Duckett; Thrimby ; Harrington; Morville; Engaine; Fothergill; Fleming; Newbriggen ; Sand- ford; De Lancaster; Leybourne ; De Boos; Parr; Strickland;

Tufton ; and Wilson. At present the Lowthers almost entirely dominate in the county, though the Tufton.s have a slight influence.

The Towns of the Four Northern Counties, with the exception of Newcastle-on-Tyne and Sunderland, .and the secondary towns of Berwick-on-Tweed, Tynemouth, North Shields, South Shields, Hartlepool, Darlington, Stockton, and Carlisle, are not of commercial importance, for Durham is strictly a cathedral city. Besides these two last cities, we can find space only for reference to Newcastle and Sunderland. Durham is "an ancient and decaying town of 14,083 inhabitants," with four suburbs. "The principal or more ancient portion is, for the most part, built on the scarpt side of a hill, which is crowned by the cathedral and the castle," the hill itself being "a penin- sula surrounded on three sides by the Wear," and formerly on the fourth by a moat. The castle, of which there were succes- sive buildings, additions, and rebuildings, if not in Saxon times, in 1072, 1172, 1417, and 1660, the last by Bishop eosin (all much injured by the bad taste of the eighteenth century), was in modern times made the site of a university by Bishop Van Mildest. Its architecture, as may be supposed, is of a very mixed character in point of style and date. The university, the idea of which was first started in Henry VIII.'s time, and revived and carried out by Cromwell in 1657, was suppressed at the Restoration. Besides this, Bishop Hatfield's Hall was opened in 1846 for the accommodation of students. The Cathedral was originally dedibated to St. Cuthbert, but Henry VIII. called it the Cathedral of Christ and the Blessed Virgin. The diocese includes the counties of Durham and Northumberland. The extreme length is 510 feet; the transept, from north to south, is 170 feet; nave and aisles, north to south, 80 feet ; choir and aisles, north to south, 80 feet ; height of nave and choir, 69 feet 9 inches ; height of west tower, 138 feet ; height of central tower, 214 feet. The present edifice was begun in 1093 by Bishop Carileph, and his successor, Flambard, com- pleted the great mass of the building, and "the nave is one of the grandest specimens of Norman architecture existing in England." The Galilee was attached to the west end by Bishop Pudsey about 1170, and the east transept (or chapel of the Nine Altars) and the Norman choir *ere added in 1289. In the latter part of the eighteenth century, under the name of "restorations," much of the Norman work was destroyed.

Carlisle, now a curious mixture of a busy manufacturing town and a cathedral city, stands at the junction of the Caldew with the Eden. Its population is 29,400, of which 20,000 are employed in manufactures. "The plan of the city resembles the shape of the letter Y, the castle being on the apex." There are numerous factories with tall chimneys, and the walls and gates have dis- appeared; but the streets are clean, and the town has altogether a busy and thriving appearance. The cathedral is a mutilated building, consisting only of a choir and transepts, and is sur- mounted with a stunted tower ; but it has many architectural beauties. There was a monastery at Carlisle before the time of St. Cuthbert, but all these buildings were laid waste by the Scandinavian invaders, and the abbey was rebuilt by William Rufus, who made Carlisle an episcopal see, and the parish church a cathedral. The greater part of the nave, together with the cloisters, was destroyed by the early Reformers. The present choir was begun in the reign of Edward I. The cathedral has undergone many alterations and renovations, and of late has been thoroughly "restored." The castle is an old moated fortress at the north end of the town, overlooking the Eden, and a garrison was kept in it till 1864. The principal manufactures are of cotton ginghams and checks. There are also some extensive dyeing works. Newcastle-on-Tyne, an important town, with a population of 109,108 (in 1861), is the proper modern capital of the Four

Northern Counties, and is separated by the Tyne from a sort of suburb, Gateshead, in Durham, with which it is connected by a

low stone bridge, as well as a stupendous high-level railway bridge, which crosses not only the river, but the whole valley of the Tyne. It is shrouded in smoke, but "its appearance from the south is imposing, as the town rises abruptly from the river, its houses ranged one above another on the steep side of a hill, which is crowned by the principal churches and the Norman keep of the castle." The streets of the old town are nar-

row, but those of the new broad and the steps fine. Tho Saxon town is said to have been established by some monks,

who built what they called " Muneceaster," near the ancient Roman station of Porcs /Eur. This place was destroyed by William the Conqueror, and a castle founded about 1080, by his son Robert, led to the name of Neutcattk. In Stephen's time the town was ceded to the Scots for sixteen years. We have already alluded to the fortunes of Northumberland during the middle ages and more modern times, in all of which Newcastle from its position necessarily played an important part. "The castle, three old churches, and some traces and fragments of the town walls are almost the only remarkable objects of antiquity which remain." We have already spoken of the important rela- tion of Newcastle to the collieries, as a shipping port, in our general notice of the counties of Northumberland and Durham, and on this its prosperity as a port mainly depends. Its principal manufactures, as we have already said, are of bottles and win- dow-glass. It was constituted a borough by William the Conqueror, and has received thirty-six charters from subsequent Sovereigns. It has sent two members to the House of Commons since the 27th Edward I. It has excellent railway communica- tions, and is well provided with all the religious, educational, and social accompaniments of a first-class town.

Sunderland stands to the county of Durham in much the same relation that Newcastle does to that county and Northumber- land, being next to that town the greatest port in England for coal shipment. The population of the municipal borough was, in 1861, 78,211. It is situated on both sides of the river Wear, close to its mouth. The appearance of the town is "black and gloomy in the extreme," the atmosphere filled with smoke, and with the exception of one street, the town consists of a number of narrow lanes rather than streets, with a mass of small, dingy houses. On the north side of the river are Monk-Wear- mouth and Suthwick, and on the south side, Sunderland town- ship and and Bishop-Wearmouth. Monks-IVearmouth and its monas- tery existed long before there was any town on the south side of the river, and Bede has given an account of its monastery. It is now densely populated with the lower orders. The best streets and houses are in Bishop-Wearmouth. The North Dock, near the mouth of the Wear, is capable of' holding 100 sail of colliers. "The towns on the two sides of the river are connected by a bridge, built between 1793 and 1796. The town owes its growth and prosperity to the shipment of coals. Sail cloth, chain cables, glass, and earthenware are also extensively manu- factured in it. It first returned Members to Parliament under the Reform Act of 1832.

We can do no more than mention the name of Berwick-upon- Tweed, which, indeed, is properly neither in England nor Scotland, and though subject to English law, was never in any English county. It was made legally a county in itself by the 6th and 7th of William IV. Its glory is entirely of the past, and is so com- pletely a part of the history of the wars between England and Scotland in the middle ages, that to tell its tale would be simply to rechronicle those wars. It is now a town of 8,613 inhabitants, "of a dismal, dreary, dirty appearance, and surrounded by the walls erected in the reign of Elizabeth." The salmon fishery, which formerly brought prosperity to the town, is no longer very productive.

We must conclude our hasty and cursory notice of these four counties with a reference to their most eminent natives. Not many are recorded in connection with Durham. The "Venerable Bede is the most remarkable in the earliest times, the Nevilles during the middle ages, Colonel John Lilburne during the reign of Charles I., and General Sir Henry Havelock in modern times. For Northumberland, the early period gives us St..Aidan and St.. Cuthbert, the early Christian missionaries; "Dusts Scotus," said to have been the first who broached the doctrine of the Tmmacu- late Conception, who died in 1308; the great family of Percy, most of whom were men of note during the middle ages ; Bishop Ridley, who was martyred in 1555; Mark Akenside, the poet ;. Lords Stowell and Eldon; Earl Grey (of the first Reform Bill Ministry); Admiral Lord Collingwood ; George and Robert. Stephenson ; Martin the painter; and the antiquaries and_ county historians Horsley and Hodgson. In Cumberland and Westmoreland, we have besides the Cliffords and Howards of the middle ages ; Edward Law, Lord Chief Justice and Chancellor as Lord Ellenborough, in modern times ; and the poet William Wordsworth, born at Cockermouth ; Edward Grindal, Archbishop of Canterbury in the reign of Elizabeth (born at St. Bees) ; and Sir Richard Hutton (the judge who went for Hampden on the Shipmoney case), born at Penrith.