PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION.* IN these days of scientific—that is, of
exact thought—education can no longer be regarded as a wholly empirical art. In its practical details empirical knowledge, no doubt, must remain, as Mr. Sully admits, the principal source of guidance ; and if the "teacher approaches the study of mental science with the sup- position that it is going to open up to him a short and easy road to his professional goal, he will be disappointed." But psychology must henceforth have its due weight as the basis of the most important of all the arts. We therefore welcome the appearance of such works as the one before us, which cannot but render valuable service to the cause of education. The reproach of uselessness, so often cast at the branch of inquiry in connection with which Mr. Sully's name is so well known, at all times a shallow one, will be less than ever justifiable now that the practical side of psychology engages the attention of the masters of the science.
It is well to adopt Mr. Sully's distinction between psychology and philosophy, ontology, metaphysics, or by whatever name the inquiry into the nature and origin of mind, matter, knowledge, and morals may be designated. Psychology thus conceived is concerned with the phenomena of mind, and, as treated in the present volume, with those of the human mind under the con- ditions of existing civilisation. Its aim, therefore, is to ascertain the simplest states of consciousness,—in other words, the elements of mind,—and trace the laws in accordance with which these are combined, and built up into the complex phenomena exhibited by the mind of adult civilised man. At the outset we are confronted by a difficulty peculiar to psychology. The natural and physical sciences are based wholly upon external observation, but the facts of mind, can be studied both as biological events and as facts of introspection—the observer's and others. Which of these two methods is the right one P Mr. Sully, in opposition to the Comtist School, prefers the introspective method, to which he attributes an exclusive value; but to us it seems that neither method can be neglected, and that nothing has so seriously impeded the progress .of the science as the proclivity of thinkers to attach themselves to one or the other method.
It may be urged that psychology cannot legitimately be *thus shorn of metaphysics. But whether mind per se be an aggregation of different parts or a unity working through a differentiated material apparatus, thus giving birth to an infinite variety of phenomena, just as the same electric current applied to different portions of the nervous system produces different results, its nature must form the subject of other than the reasoning faculties. It may be none the less a reality on that account, but the method of the philosophy of mind is not that of positive demonstration ; and the inquiry, in great measure through the imperfection of language, too often de- generates into an endless dialectic. Of psychology, on the other hand, the elements are phenomena which are certain enough qua phenomena ; and when observation and analysis shall have completely determined these and the laws of their combinations, the science of psychology will be as complete-a one as chemistry would be did it resume all the properties of the elements of matter and the laws of their interaction, with- out touching upon the question of their origin.
The present volume does not aim at more than a cursory pre- sentment of psychology as above defined, the author's principal object being to afford educators systematic aid towards appre- hending the main facts and laws which ought to form the basis of their art. One of the most interesting chapters is that upon Attention, which is said to occupy a less extensive field than Consciousness. The position is a questionable one, for it may be doubted whether we can be conscious of any state without the exercise of some attention in respect of that state. Again, attention is defined as an " intensification " of consciousness. Eat it must be something more, as Mr. Sully seems to admit, for he adds that it is "to force the mind or consciousness in a particular direction." In fact, attention involves the selection, voluntary (through internal choice) or involuntary (through external impression), of an object, more or less concentration of the mind upon this, and more or less withdrawal of the mind from being occupied with other objects. It is, indeed, difficult to determine how far consciousness, attention, and will are not merely different terms denoting the same mental fact,—namely, mental differentiation in the three directions of feeling, knowing, * Outlines of Psychology, icith Special Reference to the Theory of Education. By James Sally, M.A. London: Longmans. 1884. and acting, which are, again, too indissolubly connected with each other to be capable of being considered as separate processes. Be this as it may, the power of voluntary attention is one of the most important of our faculties from the educator's point of view. Through its development the capacities of the mind are enabled to approach the limits of their respective powers, and the fullest possible intellectual pro- gress to be accomplished. The description of genius as the power of taking pains has been often quoted, and taking pains means simply fixing and sustaining the attention. Hence the high im- portance of a sufficient study of this faculty of the mind, of the mode and extent of its action, and of the physical and other con- ditions which favour its exercise. The fundamental quality of a good teacher lies in his power of awakening the interest, which is merely persuading the attention, of his pupils. Their faculties are thus sharpened, their receptivity increased, and probably their retentiveness likewise augmented. With less labour greater and more permanent results are obtained, the task glides from a. toil into a pleasure, and the stock of knowledge is more rapidly accumulated and more perfectly assimilated. Mr. Sully's treatment of this portion of his subject fairly exemplifies his method.. We cannot say that it is altogether satisfactory. There is too much compression, the sections into which his materials are thrown hardly follow each other in the natural sequence of mental events, and there is a certain (icottsv, air about the book that makes it rather difficult reading. These remarks apply chiefly to the psychological portions ; to the practical sections we have no exception to take, save that they are, perhaps, a little meagre. The fact is, a science like psycho- logy is hardly susceptible of popularisation ; it demands a power of sustained and accurate thought that those who are likely to benefit by the study of popular treatises do not commonly possess.
We cannot close this necessarily inadequate review of a book dealing with so large a subject, without calling attention to Mr. Sully's striking but questionable remarks (p. lit'8) on the earlier emotions of children. He holds that they are almost wholly such as in the adult we should term bad. The child, as Mr. Sully pictures him, on the strength of what we deem to be a somewhat limited experience, is resentful, domineering, selfish, envious, given to anger, hatred, and cruelty. He is utterly careless of other's sufferings, and intent only upon his own enjoyments. Were his emotions, indeed, to remain unchanged in character, while his physical and intellectual powers grew, he would become, according to this view, a monster of iniquity and tyranny ; and occa- sionally this does take place. But the moment the child begins to recognise the human world around him, the social feelings are awakened in him, and act as an antidote to the self-regarding ones with which he starts in life. The remarks that follow upon the proper method of training the feelings of children, at least in those cases in which the somewhat harsh views we have summarised above can be justified, are well worthy of perusal. Indeed, the book is full of practical wisdom, which not only professional educators, but all who are charged with the care of the young, would do well to understand and lay to heart. We must add that the reader, desirous of more complete information on any of the many topics touched upon, will find himself sufficiently assisted by the abundant references to the literature of the subject scattered throughout the volume, as well as by the short summaries of the history of opinion on certain points that follow the chapters in which these are mooted.
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