ON AUTHORITY IN MATTES OF OPINION. * THIS essay of Mr.
Cornevvall Lewis exhibits a considerable improvement upon his former work on the Government of Dependencies.t It has less pedantry of manner ; it is faller of matter both real and useful ; and if not closer in its style, regarding style as the more expression of ideas, the valuable ideas are more numerous. But, like the former work, the Essay on the Influence of Authority in Matters of Opinion rather disappoints the expectation of the reader ; and though he may rise from it with some satisfactory conclusions, the conclusions are scarcely those he has been looking for. He will find in the volume a sketch of the history of the different Christian sects, and their respective claims to authority; landing at last in the deduction that none of them as an ulti- mate resource has any claim, the final resort being to the private inter- pretation of Scripture. He will meet some sensible discussions on the different systems of government and politics, as well as on the sub- ordinate questions of state interference in religions or educational matters, including the point of endowments. There are also a discussion on the censorship of the press • a review of the influence of periodicals and newspapers, with the good and evil of anonymous writing; and an exposition of the manner in which the majority in politics rightfully has the authority, though number is by no means a test of right reason. In smaller question; where the decision applies to individual conduct, we are warned that conjurors are not good authorities; and that proverbs may be received as authority upon the subject they refer to, provided these homely oracles are rightly interpreted; for which purpose national proverbs would seem to be the safest, as being most readily understood. There is a good deal of sound advice touching submission in questions of science, and the test we should apply in cases where we have no know- ledge of the subject; with useful hints as to the choice of professional ad- visers and our reliance on professional authority.
In all these topics and several others, we suspect that Mr. Lewis rather deviates, from the usual idea of authority, which seems to mean an unreasoning submission to the opinion or decision of persons whether living or dead. The Romanist who surrenders his reason to a living Pope, the disciple who blindly swears by the words of some dead master, both submit to authority. But the man who in either case examines for himself can scarcely be said to be so influenced. We talk of the authority of Scripture ; but the inquirer who investigates the subject for himself scarcely submits to authority, because, a decision of the Deity being as- sumed, it must of course be received. In like manner we may speak of the authority of grammar or any other science; but a person who studies a science—grammar or astronomy for example—and can give reasons for the faith that is in him, cannot be classed with those who are influenced by authority. His conclusions may be wrong, but that is an error in judgment, or some defect in the science itself. The astronomers before Copernicus (to borrow an instance of Mr. Lewis) all held erroneous notions as to the planetary system ; but such of them as mastered the principles on which the Ptolemaic theory rested can hardly be held to have yielded to authority. They were deficient in original or inventive acumen, but they did all that their particular abilities enabled them to do when they inquired for themselves; anything beyond was a genius for discovery, not freedom from authority. Laplace admit- ted the truth and magnitude of Newton's discoveries; but he cannot be said to have submitted to the authority of Newton, since he examined, criticized, and, so to speak, improved upon him : the world at large, who do not understand the Principia, submit to the authority of its author and upholders. Mr. Lewis's deviations from his subject do not arise from any heterodox idea of his own : be defines authority to be "the influence which deter- mines a belief without a comprehensioh of the proof" ; which, though perhaps not applicable to mere authority, as that rather substitutes con- fidence or submission for belief, is still quite away from much of what the book treats of. The influence of the press does not originate in the cause • An Essay on the Influence of Authority In Matters of Opinion. By George Come- Nall Lewis, Esq. Published by John W. Parker. t Spectator, 1841; page 807. alleged in the definition. The comprehension is always addressed. And where the influence does not arise from echoing the preconceived opinions of readers with striking illustrations and more clinching arguments, the authority of the press extends no further than the getting persons to per- use patiently arguments opposed to their views, or, in rare cases, to admit the likelihood of some future event though they cannot foresee it them- selves, because they have confidence in the sagacity of the predieter. When people are wrongfully persuaded, as they may be by the press, they are misled, not influenced by authority. Again, election or party minorities have little belief in their opponents, with comprehension or without ; all the authority they defer to is that of the law. The section of the book that strictly corresponds with the terms of the title is that on the authority we should yield to in matters of science, and the means we should use to measure the degree of belief to be rendered. The discussion on authority in matters of practical business—as law and sur- gery—also contains very useful advice, and might possibly be classed under the same head.
Notwithstanding the qualifications we have hinted at, this book is more useful than if it were merely an inquiry into the effects of authority in past ages, as the greater portion of the essay relates to matters present ; sometimes of a nature that comes home to the private affairs of men, and always of a kind from which they may form opinions on public ques- tions. In general these opinions are sound, though neither very new nor very striking. Mr. Lewis has brought a good deal of inquiry and some reflection to his task ; but be is deficient in the kind of original power that was requisite to overturn the Ptolemaic system. Mooted questions are brought together, discussed, and decided with precision in a formal kind of logic ; while a conclusion is also come to, mostly on the mode- rate-liberal side. There is nothing very new in these tests of true science ; but they are reasonable, compact, and well expressed. "We may observe that mock sciences are rejected, after a patient examination and study of facts, and not upon a hasty first impression, by the general agree- ment of competent judges. Such was the case with astrology, magic., and divi- nation of all sorts, at the beginning of the last century; which having been re- duced to a systematic form, and received by the general credulity, have since yielded to the light of reason. The errors of the ancients in natural history, which were repeated by subsequent writers after the revival of letters, have been exploded by a similar process. The same may be said of the influence of the heavenly, bodies upon diseases, believed at no distant date by scientific writers. Mesmerism, homeopathy, and phrenology, have now been before the world a suffi- cient time to be fairly and fully examined by competent judges; and as they have not stood the test of impartial scientific investigation, and therefore have not es- tablished themselves in professional opinion, they may be safely, on this ground alone, set down under the head of mock sciences; though, as in the case of al- chemy, the researches to which they give rise, and the new hypotheses which they promulgate, may assist in promoting genuine science. "True sciences establish themselves after a time, and acquire a recognized po- sition in all civilized countries. Moreover, they connect themselves with other true sciences; analogies and points of contact between the new truth and truths formerly known are perceived. Such has been the case with geology, which has only taken its place as a science founded on accurate and extensive observation during the present century. But while it has assumed an independent position, it has received great assistance from comparative anatomy and other apparently unconnected sciences, and has thrown light upon them in return. Discoveries in medicine, too, which rest on a firm basis, as vaccination and the operation for aneurism, are after a few years brought to a certain test, and make their way in all countries. Pseudo sciences, on the other hand, are not accredited by the con- sentient reception of professional judges, but remain in an equivocal and unac- cepted state. No analogies or affiliations with genuine sciences are discovered; the new comer continues an alien, unincorporated with the established scientific system; if any connexion is attempted to be proved, it is with another spurious science, as in the case of phreno-mesmerism, where one delusion is supported by another. Mock sciences, again, not making their way universally, are sometimes confined to a particular nation ; or, at all events, to a limited body of sectarians, who stand aloof from the professors of the established science.
"Another means of distinguishing real from unreal sciences, may be found in the character and objects of the persons by whom they are respectively cultivated. The professors of genuine sciences, for the most part, make the investigation or the communication of truth their primary object. Even teachers who are remu- nerated for their services, are in general careful to communicate only true and sound opinions to their disciples, and would consider the inculca- tion of error as a breach of their duty. The desire of knowing the truth is, indeed, no preservative against error. No such preservative exists. But the desire of ascertaining the truth is a necessary condition tor ascertaining it. He who does not seek will not find. The charlatan, on the other hand, is almost invariably actuated by the love of gain. His purpose is to dupe the world, and to extract money from the pockets of his dupes. Paracelsns and Mesmer afford an example on a large scale; a village mountebank on a small one. Occasionally, there may be the love of attracting attention for its own sake, and a disinterested pleasure in cheating the world; but gain is the leading motive.
"Some indications may likewise be derived from the firm and method in which a new science is propounded. Genuine science is in general simple, precise, per- spicuous, devoid of ornament, dry and unattractive, modest in its pretensions, free from all undue contrivances for exciting applause or obtaining attention. Char- latanism, on the other hand, is tricky, obtrusive, fall of display—now wearing the mask of impassioned enthusiasm—now assuming an aspect of solemn gravity, vague and mystical in its language, sometimes propounding elaborate schemes of new classification and nomenclature, dealing in vast promises and undertakings."
This distinction on religious endowment is useful, and, steadily acted on, might prevent disappointment and waste of money.
"That an ecclesiastical endowment will diffuse religious truth, where apathy and indifference on religious matters exist, and where religion is untaught be- cause there is no provision for teaching it, cannot be doubted. Where the ground is unoccupied, the endowed teacher will step into possession, and cultivate his allotted district. If he be industrious and skilful, his seed, being thrown into a field ready to receive it, will take root, and spring up and bear fruit. But it will be otherwise if the ground be already occupied by others, who contest the possession with him. In this case, his seed will be scattered to the winds, and there will be little or no harvest to gather into his garner. "When an endowed clergyman supplies a void which otherwise would remain unfilled—when be affords religious instruction to persons who would otherwise be uninstructed—when he preaches religious doctrine to persona who would other- wise hear no religious doctrine—his influence in the propagation of the opinions of his confession cannot fail to be felt, provided that he addresses persons of the requisite amount of intelligence and information. But if he comes into conflict with unendowed clergymen—if he addresses persons who already receive religious instruction from others, whose minds are preoccupied with the doctrines of a dif- ferent sect, and whose conscience is bound to the practice of other religious rites and observances—his influence becomes less important, and may perhaps be nearly imperceptible. If religion was a subject on which all men were agreed, or if there was any one living authority on religions questions to which they were willing to defer—if religious opinions were not a matter of conscientious convic- tion, and maintained from a sense of moral obligation—if, when religious instruc- tion and the means of religions worship were provided gratuitously by the state, every person might be expected to use them, rather than incur the expense of providing them for himselt—if people flocked to the lessons of the endowed cler- gyman, as they would flock to the distribution of relief by the state or as the Romans went to the public games—if men looked upon religion as an article to be procured at the cheapest cast, and for which they would make no pecuniary sacrifice—then the influence of endowment in propagating the peculiar religions opinions of the endowed sect would be decisive. But these necessary conditions for its success, as a means of gaining over converts from other confessions, are wanting; and we accordingly find that it has failed as an engine of proselytism."
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