BOOKS.
RIDDLE'S HISTORY OF THE PAPA.CY.t Tun Reverend J. E. Riddle is known for a Latin-English Dic- tionary of considerable merit, a very useful Ecclesiastical Chrono- logy from the Crucifixion to within a few years of the publication of the volume in 1840, and a Manual of Christian Antiquities. The studies which these works imply formed a good preliminary training for the History of the Papacy. Nor will the reader be dis- appointed in this work, if he be satisfied with clearness of arrange- ment, simple plainness of style, a careful selection of the essential facts, and especially a minute marking of the actions or opinions which denote the progress of Papal practices and power. In the loftier qualities of the historian—philosophical acumen, depth of thought, and the imaginative faculty which gives life to the past and animation to its narrative—the work is deficient.
It should be observed, however, that the epic or the philosophic style of history was not aimed at. Mr. Riddle's object was to present such a précis of the case as should enable the reader to have the clearest idea of the growth of the Papacy ; for to fix the exact time when it originated he conceives to be impossible. We can say when it was not, and we can say when it was, but we cannot say precisely when it began; though it is easy enough to see when particular Bishops of Rome, favoured by circumstances, boldly advanced claims that partake of what is now called Papal usurpation. The History itself was primarily designed to put " the politician or man of business in possession of the plain facts of the Papal history, the actual and palpable events by which that his- tory has been marked from age to age in the course of human af- fairs." Mr. Riddle continues—" In this history, he [the man of business or politician] calls for accuracy of statement, and for in- formation sufficiently full, combined with clearness of style and the utmost possible brevity; and, while he asks not for theories but for facts, although he does not desire a minute investigation of unnecessary details, and does not wish to find the page loaded with quotations, he is yet disposed to welcome if not to demand a perpetual reference to authorities and to the sources from which the substance of the narrative has been derived." This ideal of the writer is well realized. We know not of any work where the patient reader has the facts necessary to form an opinion upon the formation and growth of the Papacy as clearly set before him, so that he can see the circumstances, the advantage taken of them, and sometimes the audacity, sometimes the policy, which enabled the Bishops of Rome to be gradually transformed into Popes. Al- though Mr. Riddle is familiar with the subject and its authorities, it should be added, that some fifty volumes of two German writers, Schrock and Planck, have greatly aided him in his task, as Lard- ner aided Paley in the Evidences.
The division of the History is twofold throughout. In one divi- sion, the reader has the history or rather the annals of the Popes during a particular chronological period : in the other, an exposi- tion of the state of the Church during the same period, especially in relation to internal discipline ; the different orders of churchmen ; their powers in relation to each other and to the secular authority. The narrative is confined as much as possible to the see of Rome and the actions of individual Popes. It is very clear, but as bare of circumstances as can well be imagined. Traits of character are occasionally noted, but, generally speaking, the actors might as well be automatons for any qualities or animation they exhibit. This nude plainness renders the history dry, unless when the course of the narrative points attention to some Papal encroachment.
The exposition of the doctrines, condition, and power of the Church at different periods, is more adapted to Mr. Riddle's genius, and is much more interesting, than the story of the Popes. By this review we are led to observe more clearly the causes which gave force or validity to the Papal claims, and often induced their advance. It also shows very clearly the strenuous and ef- fectual resistance which these claims encountered, especially at the outset—how often at a later date the Papal Court had to " win its way by yielding to the tide." Amid so much that displays some of the worst features of human nature, Mr. Riddle shows great calmness and moderation; admitting the benefits which the Church and the Papacy bestowed upon mankind during the anarchy that attended the downfall of the Empire and the darkness that fol- lowed the anarchy. He admits that the Popes might sometimes conscientiously, and often from good motives, lay claim to powers over the Church Universal. He marks the claim to precedence, if not preeminence, that the Bishop of Rome would naturally enjoy from the wealth, the position, and the importance of the Eternal City as the capital of the world. We do not know that he or any other writer has sufficiently dwelt upon the feeling that these con- siderations might naturally rouse in the breasts of all the succes- sors of St. Peter—if St. Peter ever was Bishop of Rome. It was not merely the idea of metropolitan superiority over provincial gaucherie that would animate the Romish clergy and their head. The veneration with which Rome was regarded by the ancient world has no parallel in modern times. A provincial beau putting himself on a level with a Parisian petit-maitre of the old regime would not denote the difference of degree.
The manner in which the Church obtained power, and the Pa- pacy gathered to itself the powers of the Church, finally extending them further than any scattered corporations could have wielded them, is a very curious subject of study, but of course too exten- sive to enter upon here. The first step to give any churchman
• The History of the Papacy to the period of the Reformation. By the Rev. J. Z. Riddle. M.A.. Minister of St. Philip and St. James, Leckhanipton. In two volumes. Published by Bentley.
power from his office, apart from the influence of his character as a man, was perhaps the acquisition of wealth. This naturally brought ambitious men into the Church, who looked to the in- fluence and power if not the luxury which wealth bestows, while numbers would be attracted to the inferior posts as promising an easy living. An equal cause was the notion of the supe• rior or preternatural character of the priesthood, still main- tained in the Romish Church, if not also among the Tractarians. From an early period, complaints of the greediness of the clergy in general were made, but they could not legally hold property as churchmen till after the establishment of Christianity by Constan- tine. How rapidly and how rapaciously they then acquired wealth, an extract will show.
" Immediately upon the establishment of Christianity as the religion of the Empire under Constantine, the Church had the legal right of possessing property, and a large amount of wealth began to flow into the hands of the clergy. The Emperors themselves seemed to take pleasure in diverting con- siderable treasure into this channel. Constantine assigned a portion of tee revenue of the state to the use of the churches ; causing a certain amount to be paid to them out of the fiscus in every province, and directing that these resources should be applied especially to the payment of the clergy. Julian withdrew this grant; and it was restored by his Christian successor only to the extent of two-thirds,--a reduction which appears to have been effected without any complaint on the part of the Church, whence we may infer that the original grant must have been very large. " Constantine contributed still more extensively to the wealth of the Church by his celebrated edict of the year 321, declaring the ecclesiastical body competent to receive legacies, and to possess property of all kinds. Thus the Church was in a position not only to receive yearly revenues, arising from voluntary offerings or customary payments, but to possess Bred property yielding a certain income, altogether independent of the ex- isting inclinations or desires of the laity. Scarcely had ten years elapsed after the issuing of this edict, before it became an universal custom for every one at his death to bequeath some property to the uses of the Church ; and within fifty years the clergy of every province had become possessed of no less than a tenth of all landed property. At the end of the fourth century, the Emperors Valentinian and Gratian found it needful to publish an edict with a view to rescue the property of widows and orphans from the grasp of the clergy, who had now assumed a right to administer the property of all persons who died intestate ; and even Jerome was obliged to say that he was sorry, not that the Emperors had made this law, but that the conduct of his brethren had rendered it necessary."
This passage on the superstitious veneration for the priesthood refers to an earlier period than the previous extract—to the period before Constantine. In fact, we think the result of Mr. Riddle's exposition is to show that the superiority of Rome, or at least the superstitions ideas connected with the " visible Church," began to develop itself at an early period.
"During the latter end of the second century, and in the course of the third, the system of ecclesiastical discipline was refined and carried out with increased strictness, particularly with respect to the admission of members, the suspension or excommunication of offenders, and the penitential ob- servances required in order to readmission, especially of the lapsed. And all these arrangements tended to confirm the idea of high privilege attaching to communion with the Church.
"The increase of Church members naturally and necessarily led to a cor- responding increase in the number of Church officers. Even before the end of the second century some churches possessed no fewer than twenty or thirty presbyters and as many deacons ; although in some large churches (e. g. that of Rome) the deacons were restricted to the primitive num- ber—seven. Not only was the number of original Church officers in- creased, but new offices were established; and we now read of sub-deacons, acolyths, readers, exorcists, and door-keepers, (our pew-openers, and bedells or sextons,) in addition to bishops, priests, and deacons. The necessity of this augmentation arose not simply from the increase of members, but also (especially in the ease of acolyths and exorcists) from the multiplication of ceremonies.
"These Church officers, forming now so numerous a body, began to be affected by an esprit de corps. They began, as we have seen, to form a kind of separate caste in the Church, and their relation to the general body thus became greatly, although imperceptibly, modified and changed. Such a body of men, already become to a certain extent distinctfrom the rest, trans- acting so much business of the whole society, and standing in so important a relation to it, found itself possessed of considerable influence and power; and this power it naturally sought to consolidate and enlarge.
"One means by which power was thrown into the hands of the clergy was that which has already been noticed, the confounding of the idea of the Christian ministry with that of the Jewish priesthood. The Apostles had taught that while the Lord Jesus Christ is the spiritual high priest of our profession, all believers, as such, are spiritual antitypes of the Jewish priests, being entitled to offer spiritual sacrifices of thanksgiving and obedience, ren- dered acceptable to God through the mediation of the Redeemer. This priestly character, in truth, appertains to all Christians alike, without any distinction of class or order. And, in the same manner, the whole body of believers was originally regarded as the cleros, the lot or inheritance, of the Lord. Ltut during the second and third centuries a new set of ideas on these points became prevalent. The ministers of the Church, instead of the mem- bers generally, began now to be looked upon especially, and at length ex- clusively, as the cleros or clergy. And more particularly, this favoured body was supposed to bear exclusive resemblance to the Jewish priesthood, and even to be the actual successors of that select body in the new and higher dispensation of the Gospel; so that, while the deacons and inferior officers occupied the place of Levites and other subordinstes in the Jewish system, the presbyters became to be regarded as the true sacerdotes or sacrificing priests, and the bishops as principes sacerdotum, or high priests, according to Divine institution, in the system of the Gospel.
"In this way it was boldly and distinctly announced that the clergy formed a separate class or caste,—that they held their offices by the direct institution and authority of God, not at all through the medium of the Church,—that their services were indispensable for the performanee of reli- gious worship, and for the communicating of heavenly grace and blessing,— that they were, in short, no less than necessary mediators between God and man.
"During the second and third centuries, various marks and observances were introduced for denoting the distinction between the clergy and laity. Thus, in the sacred edifices, a special place was assigned to the clergy, which Eusebius designates as being inaccessible to the multitude ; obeisance was made to a bishop or presbyter by a layman when the parties accidentally .met in public ; and the whole ecclesiastical order was supposed to be in- vested with such a peculiar sanctity that actions which were lawful in a layman were regarded as unlawful in a member of the clerical body. And during this period it came to be received as a settled maxim that no laymen ought to presume to teach or preach in the Christian assemblies in pre_ sence of the clergy. At the beginning of the third century, Demetrius of Alexandria found fault with the bishops of Palestine for their admission of Origen to preach, on the ground that it was an unheard-of thing for laymen to preach in the presence of bishops : but the bishops were then able to ad- duce examples to the contrary. " When once the laity were accustomed thus to regard the clergy ea a class of men superior to themselves, it was easy to establish the idea that they also possessed the right of dominion ; and it was to this spiritual despot- ism, in point of fact, that so many of the opinions and usages of this period were directly and rapidly tending.',
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