B 0 0 K S .

JAPAN.*

TnE West has scarcely even- yet recovered from the profound' astonishment with which it learnt that the Japanese had suddenly, emerged from the chrysalis stage in which- they had . lain for centuries, and had stepped- into the political arena of the world, not merely as a highly civilized, but also as -a very powerful nation. The episode was so wholly. sbnormal, and, save perhaps to a very' few possessed of rpeeiar knowledge, so wholly unexpected. Instances of the East sullenly , and resentfully accepting some of the blessings and—it must regretfully • be added—not a few of the mrsee of the West have- been common enough. Ftirther, the world has become familiarized with. the sight of Eastern, rulers 'who, mistaking the excrescences and by-products of- Western civilization for its- essence, have endeavoured, in a half-hearted and -usually. very unintelligent manner, to graft seine fragments of modern Western life on a hoary rand- uncon- genial-Oriental stock. Moreover, increased'-contact has often only resulted in the decay of some primitive but highly laudable Eastern virtues, and the assimilation of some very ,reprehensible Western vices. But that a nation which had hitherto been regarded 'as the most extreme representative of Eastern eon- servatienr, and 'which had for centuries past persistently closed: its gates against Western intrusion, should suddenly cast off exclusivist mantle ; that it should, as Mr. Porter says in his very; interesting work, be able to absorb Western ideas without: making a servile copy of them ; that in the process-of absorption: it should succeed in-maintaining its original national character-; -Mies; and-that in an incredibly short space of time it should; be able not merely. to withstand but to vanquish a first-rate European Power, was a phenomenon which caused a feeling almost amounting to stupefaction. History afforded no prece-

.dent"for any. such unconventiOnallransformation. What has been the secret of Japanese success ? What have teen the main causes which have contributed to one of the meet momentous events of modern times; and one which is certainly, destined to exercise a far-reaching influence on the meal-politics of the future ? The subject is one which most assuredly deserves consideration at the hands of all students of political, and especially of diplomatic, history.

In the first place, it is to be observed that drastic change in Japan was never -likely to split on-the rock upon whicirit has so often- foundered- elsewhere. The Japanese were differentiated from all 'other Easterns, and notably from all Moslems, by one striking peculiarity. They may be held for all the purposes of the practical politician to have been devoid of religion. There was no Pope or priest to inculcate the lesson that there was but one path to future happiness. Intolerance was an exotic plant. An unsuccessful - attempt was at one time made- by the Jesuits to introduce it into the country. " It was the aggressive intolerance of the Christians," Mr. Porter says, -" not their doctrines, which -led -to their being denounced as- agitators." There was no Mollah or Afire to preach that reform' Ancieraerilege,were synonymous' terms; and that the immuta- bility of the law was based on an ,ordinance of Divine origin.: Reformers had not even to encounter that feeble degree of oppo- - 'Alen which, in-the days of Roman supremacy, was offered to' the introduction of novel ideas by :the easygoing pantheism of the ancient world. A school of-philosophy, which was a mixture of ancestor and nature worship, and which did not profess any very definite code of morals, had taken the place of religion.

It did- not facilitate reform, but it. greatly hindered the_ decay i. of these healthy, invigorating national-Characteristics which in other Eistern countries have at times tended in some degree; to languish 'when reforms have taken place. The Japanese . was not like thelleelein, who, when be casts himself loose from Islamism, often finds himself storm-tossed on a political and social-sea without rudder and without compass. Shintoiem fostered Ihe civic virtues, and greatly encouraged the growth i and maintenance of a singularly sturdy and self-sacrificing ! patexitiem. Veneration for the Emperor was exalted to the ' dignify of a Although from a. very. early period- European • traders had retablished some -very limited commercial relations with. Japan, it was Commodore.Perry, of-the United states Navy, who-took .*--Jaeara, thii NCid World-Poircr. By Robert P. Porter. London : Rumpbriy

3nnord.' nct.i _

"the first decisive step towards breaking-down the barrier behind ,which. Japanese exchisivenese had - previously . been sheltered. In 1853,- he insisted on delivering at the forbidden port of .,Yedo a formal letter from the President of the :United Stites-4e, the

ruler of Japan. In 1858,' a commercial treaty. .was negotiated between the Atherican and Japanese Governments. " Expel the foreigner," however, still-continued to be the watchword -of -the nation. Disorders ensued. The British, Legation- ?was

attacked in 1861. An, English and also an -Atnericari-official were - murdered in 1862, and foreign vessels were fired fupon.

Then followed the Kagoshimat ombardment and the Shimonosek i expedition. These, incidents constituted the Ithuriel's • spear which-finally, awoke the Japanese from their lethargy;-

" The year 1863 was memorable in Japan's history, It -saw the ' barbarian expelling agitation • deprived. of the Emperor's sanction ;' it -saw two principal clans, Satsuma and- ClioshO con- vinced of their country's impotence to defy the! Oecident; it is w the nation almost fully roused -to- the-disintegrating effects of the feudal system ; .•and it saw- the traditional --antipathy to -foreigners .beginning. to be-.exchanged for a desire to study their civilization and to adopt its best features."

The Japanese recognized- that, as a neceesary.preliminaryyto the organization of their political and administrative system after a- fashion which would enable them to- withstand the •

onslaught of Europe, they must be masters in, their own -house.

The country -was riven with internal dissensions. Vendalinni reigned supreme. It involved the existence of a number of conflicting jurisdictions and separate local administrations. It was essential that these should disappear, and that power should be centralized in the. hands of the Emperor. it -was then that the spirit of Japanese patriotism and self-sacrifice, which at a. later period received such heroic illustration en the bloodstained' battlefields of Manchuria, was conspicuously

shown in the domain of internal reform. In other countries the abolition of feudal 'privileges has either been effected 'by :revo- lution, or it has been the result of long and acrimonious dis- cussions, not unfrequently accompanied by disorder and blood-

-shed: Japan was more fortunate. No coercion was necesiary. The leading chieftains voluntarily abandoned their privileges :— " The significance of these changes consists less in their magnitude than in the spirit in which they were put forward and 'accepted. The ex-feudal chiefs offered to surrender their independence ; and as -for the samurai, they resigned their substance at the bidding of -their master in the spirit in which they .would have obeyed orders to commit hara-kiri. What manner of people were these to whom a national perilcould bring forgetfulness of their immediate personal interests ! . . . And it mustbe remembered that it was the national army which was called upon- for this sacrifice ; no power existed to coerce this body .of fighting-men."

Then the tide of rapid, drastic, but intelligent reform advanced with irresistible force. "Knowledge," the Emperor declared in the Imperial Oath' sworn on April 6th, 1868, " shall be sought

for throughout the world- so that the welfare of the Empire may be promoted." But the Europeans imported were used as agents.

They- were not allowed- to become masters. Moreover, the -Japanese very wisely never adopted any European innovation in its entirety. Adaptation, not imitation, was the principle on which they acted. The result has been writ large on 'the record of the world's -history. " Japan was victorious not because she. could command better lighting material than the enemy, but because her • subjects shrank from no personal sacrifice in the-national cause." .

These pre-eminent national 'characteristics would;' however, possibly, not have produced-such striking- results Irad7it not been for a, further quality - which . was a • distinguishing feature. of .Japanese policy throughout the period-when •the, Empire of Japan was in-the- making. The recent dielOmatie history, of Japan is a standing and continuous sermon on Juvenas 'text- Nullam numen abed, .Li sil. prudottia.. Japanese statesmen have known, not only,what to do, but when to be,active and when inactive. They have known when to yield and when to assert. themselves. ..They:have always- carefully_. dapted their Means to their ends.- Their diplomacy- has been -persistently tharatterized by,extfeme moderation. Friends" haves net flitern Alienated if by, any, means their, amity could be secure& Enemies have-. not been -made , sieve in- cases- where,- tike continua,nee. of . friendship had been rendered,: impessibie ;without the sacrifice of legitimate-national aspirations. -When, ;it 1853, ,the action: of Commodore Perry,assumed A menacing ;character, the Japanese. rightly :estimated their own ,weakriew They yielded.' In 1000,sthe Hexer rising .oceurre4 and the Foreign - Legations at- Peking were besieged. --The,' Japanese, Acting on the principle which indiced Caymir 'to sendlardinian troops to the Crimea, saw that an opportunity had come for them to assert themselves. They associated themselves, with the expedition organized by other countries, and thus emphasized their own position as a Great Power. But they made no attempt to maintain their troops in China longer than was necessary, nor did they endeavour to extort any concessions for themselves. In the previous war with China' the latter Power was humbled to the dust ; but when Russia, France, and Germany urged on the Japanese that in the interests of peace " they should forgo many of the fruita.of victory, they at once yielded. When, towards the close of Russian War, President Roosevelt urged that the time had come tn. discuss the terms of peace, the Japanese, being under no delusions as to the reserve of strength possessed' by theii formidable opponent, at once agreed, and speedily signed the Treaty of Portsmouth.- -At a later period,--when disturbances took place in British Columbia owing to the influx of Japanese immigrants, the Japanese. Government readily consented to restrict'-their numbers. Finally, when, in 1911, the question arose Of renewing the Treaty of Alliance with Great - Britain, the Japanese were the first to appreciate that any provision for mutual aid which might tend to embroil the relations between: the two great Anglo-Saxon communities could not be accepted by-Great Britain. They agreed withmit deniur to a modification in the terms of the treaty which effectuallyaverted this danger: The predominating feature in all these transactions is the total absence of that truculence which often accompanies startling success, and for which Prussian diplomacy has gained so sinister and unenviable a notoriety.

Will Japanese statesmanship, now that success has been enaured, continue to be inspired by the same, spirit of intelligent Moderation. Which governed its proceedings during the struggle upwards ? Mr. Porter thinks that it will, and that Japanese influence will in the future be persistently exercised in the direction of the maintenance of peace. There seems at present no reason for holding that his view is unduly optimistic.

In speculating on the future of Japan it is natural to ask whether existing Japanese institutions are likely to endure in their present form, and also whether the national character of the. Japanese is destined to undergo any important transforma: tions. • Under the Constitution of. 1889 the executive, power is vested in the Emperor, who exercises it through Ministers appointed by, and responsible to, himself. The tenure of office of the Ministers depends wholly on the will of the Emperor. They cannot be dii.smissed by Parliament. The electoral fran- chiao• is granted to all male Japanese of over twenty-five years of age who pay taxes to the amount of £1 a year. It will thus be soon that the Constitution, though probably adapted to the actual requirements of the country, can scarcely be called democratic. Count Okuma in his Fifty Years of New Japan said that " the Socialistic spirit is afloat everywhere," and he evidently anticipated that Parliamentary reforms in a demo- cratic . sense would before long become inevitable. Another circumstance which, judging from the analogy of other Eastern cm/striae, seems likely to exercise an influence in the direction of encouraging a demand for democratic reform is that the supply of educated young men largely exceeds the demand, and when this happens, as Lord Stowell shrewdly remarked, " the residuum is likely to turn_ sour." - Mr. Porter says that " social problems, as they are understood in Europe and America, do not trouble Japan." There are no suffering poor, and there

is. no Poor Law. At the same time, economic questions of some gravity are likely to arise. Mr. Porter gives some amazing .figures as regards wages and the hours of labour ; for instance, he says that an enormous amount of child labour is employed,

often at the rate of no more than threepence a day. It is difficult to believe that this state of things • can endure. At :present `, the views of the capitalists receive far more attention than do those of the labourers."

• -his almost inconceivable that the Japanese national character should not be in some measure transformed. "Young Japan," Mr, Porter says, " is intoxicated with ideas, the chaotic ideas of such writers as Tolstoi, Maeterlinck, Nietzsche, and Bernard Shaw." . The names of the chosen teachers are not much calculated to inspire any extreme degree of confidence in the wisdom of the leaching. Further, " with the collapse of the feudal system -there has been a breakdown of the sense of duty to ancestors, rulers, and superiors, and nothing has taken its place. . . . In art, -in literature, and in matters of social custom the old has been swept away, and at present the nation is like a questing hound uncertain which of several tracks to follow. Commercial morality is not what it should be."

The problems which lie before Japanese statesmanship are, therefore, both numerous and arduous. Meanwhile, Englishmen may hail with pleasure the rise of the new Eastern Power, and hope that the solution of these problems may tend to maintain the influence and increase the prosperity of Japan.

CROMER.