BOOKS.

COLONEL CHURCHILL'S MOUNT LEBANON.* A RESIDENCE of ten years in Mount Lebanon has enabled Colonel Churchill to accumulate a good deal of valuable information re- specting the country and the people, which a deficient know-

ledge of the wants and tastes of the reading public has induced him to overlay with nnrequired matter, and perhaps not to pre- sent in the most effective method. It is difficult to convey a full idea of the author's error in these last respects. But let the reader imagine an English resident in the Highlands of Scotland a hundred and fifty years ago publishing three ample volumes, de- voted, first, to a detailed description of the different clans and the districts they occupied ; second, to a lengthy account of their peculiar religious or superstitious tenets, drawn too from books readily accessible to anybody who felt an interest in the matter ; third, to a full history for seven or eight hundred years of tribes whom the wits of Queen Anne's days would have denominated barbarians, and about whom the public had hardly a thought. If to the over-elaborate treatment of a subject that as yet has no con- nexion with the progress of the world, and no past associations, (for the fable of the Old Man of the Mountain has little interest now,) it is added that the mystic religious writings of the Druses are translated too fully, (from Syvelstre de Sacy's La Religion des Druses,) and that some of the men connected with their history the most remarkable for vigour of character, extraordinary for- tunes, and atrocious crimes, are already familiar to the reading world from the notices of Oriental travellers,—the error of Colonel Churchill in the choice and treatment of his subject may be un- derstood.

The knowledge which long residence produces, and a faculty of observation, have, however, yielded fruits. Those who wish to study the condition, character, and opinions of the Druses, and of the Maronite Christians, will find the means in Colonel Churchill's work. They will also find many facts throwing light upon the intrigues of Rome and France among the Maronites, with a view on the part of France to political through religious influence. The oppression of the provincial governors forms a feature in the author's experience,—for Colonel Churchill is not one of those who believe that there has been any real amelioration in the government ; though the admitted increase of commerce, and the comparative mildness of rule, seem opposed to his opinion. Such atrocities as were habitually perpetrated by the miscreant Djezzar even at the opening of this century would not be ventured upon now. There are some good topographical descriptions of Lebanon, and the agricultural capabilities of the region, possibly a little co- loured. The most interesting facts, however, concern the social and economical condition of the people ; their relations to their chiefs, their industry and manner of cultivation, with the nature of their land-tenures. As this last has a reference to a question agitated nearer home, it is perhaps the most interesting topic in the book.

Land-tenure in different countries is a curious subject of in- vestigation, not merely in reference to economical bearing on rent, but with respect to its influence on opinion, and the conse- quent ideas as to the landlord's right in the value imparted by tenants. In Ireland the extreme importance attached to every in- terest in any way connected with a " bit " of land has raised the question of tenant-right, though in a iomewhat vague and un- settled form. In no country in the world has the industry or pro- perty of the tenant done so much to increase the value of land by cultivation and improvement, or to add to its value by the expen- diture of capital on erections, as in England. Yet from our strict regard to the "rights of property," or the slowness with which the mass of the nation receives a new question, the subject has re- ceived little attention even theoretically. The elder Mill and some economists after him have pointed attention to rent as a proper subject for heavy taxation ; but they referred to economical rent, or the inherent difference in the fertility of soils. The question as to the landlord's right to a value superinduced by effects pro- duced by others,—as the care and skill of an agricultural tenant, the growth of population, with its accompanying material ad- vances, such as markets, roads, and the permanent improvements made by the outlay of his tenant,—was first, we believe, scien- tifically mooted by Francis Newman. Still, in this country, though a farmer may think himself hardly dealt by when he leaves his landlord a portion of his capital on quitting his farm, yet the thought is mostly confined to himself or his fellow suffer- ers ; certainly in its fullest extent it is not a public question. In lands where the feudal system has never been thoroughly esta- blished, the natural sense of justice has had fair play, and the landlord has not upon principle reaped where he has not sown. Captain Smith's Report on Italian Irrigation shows to what an extent tenant-right is established in the most cultivated regions of Italy. A similar practice prevails in the Lebanon, though social circumstances and a peculiar cultivation present the tenant- right in a peculiar and complicated-looking fashion.

"The lands of the Lebanon are cultivated by the peasants on something like the Metayer system. Many of the peasants have properties of their own, and are independent, except so far as they are under the orders of their feudal chief. The vast majority, however, are merely tenants-at-will; but • Mount Lebanon. A Ten-Years Residence, from 1842 to 1852; describing the Manners, Customs, and Religion of its Inhabitants : with a full and correct Account of the Di-use Religion, and containing Historical Records of the Mountain Tribes, from personal intercourse with their chiefs, and other authentic sources. By Colonel Churchill, Staff Officer on the British Expedition to Syria. In three volumes. Pub- lished by Saunders and Otley.

the terms of contract with their landlord, although various in different places, are highly advantageous to them.

" The principal source of revenue throughout the mountains arising from the silk-crop, the soil is divided into territorial divisions for the growth of the mulberry ; and each division has a house built of stone, generally con- sisting of one room, fifteen yards long by eight broad, with two centre pil- lars to support the roof, for the accommodation of the tenant and his family. In this the silk-worm is reared and brought to maturity. " From thirty to forty load of leaves Lapparently a piece of land pro- ducing that quantity) is considered an ample division for a tenant ; and a certain portion of arable land, and a vineyard, are always attached. On a tenant presenting himself as an occupant, the number of loads of leaves is counted, and their value ascertained.

"The leaves of mulberry-trees in good condition, are worth 2/. the load. The tenant pays his landlord a die of two, four, and even six shillings on the load, which is called paying a fourth. The vines and figs are in like manner valued, but never less than the full fourth of the value of these trees is paid, because their produce is more remunerative, proportionably, than that of the mulberry. The tenant now enters his house, which is rent-free, and which is always built and kept in repair at the sole expense of the landlord. " The complete culture of the division he has received now devolves on him, such as ploughing, manuring, watering, agricultural implements, rear- ing the silk-worm, making wine, raisins, freacle3—in fact, in working out the entire resources of the land in every respect ; when, in remuneration for his toil, and for the fourth of the value which he has paid, he receives one-half of the net produce of the whole property. The other half forms the landlord's rent.

" The arable land is cultivated under one or other of the following con- ditions: either the landlord and tenant supply, in equal proportions the quantity of seed necessary, and divide the produce between them at the liar- vest, or the land is inspected by a valuator, who adjudges the peasant to give yearly to his landlord a supply of corn Nual to or double the quan- tity requisite to sow it, according to the inferior or superior nature of the soil.

"The valuator, in fixing this remuneration, takes into consideration the average nature of the seasons, and also that the land is alternately sown with corn and barley : but then, the peasant is obliged to furnish his land- lord with the yearly amount of corn so fixed, whether the harvest is good, bad, or indifferent.

"When the harvest is abundant, he gains ; for good land will yield six bushels of corn to one sown ; when the harvest is bad, he has sometimes to procure and buy the share he has to give to his landlord out of his own pock- et. In some parts, the mulberry plantations are farmed out in gross to the peasants, who pay a fixed yearly sum for them, and take the whole crop of silk to themselves.

"On a tenant leaving, or being turned out, his division is valued; when he receives back from his landlord the fine, or value of the fourth, at the rate which he paid on taking possession ; and, as a matter of course, if he has been industrious, and the property has thriven under his care and superintendence, this value will have increased, and his gain be proportionably greater.

"For this reason, judicious landlords perfer getting tenants who will pay a high rate of fourth, in order to make them more interested in the improve- ment of the property. An active and laborious peasant, on his part again, is too glad to pay five shillings rather than two shillings on the load especially on new ground, because he knows that in a few years the property in his hands will have so improved, that the fourth will amount to a sum that few peasants can pay ; and he acquires, consequently, a feeling of greater security as to his possession, from the diminished chances of competition."

The following example is a case of tenant-right carried as far as it well can be; but in this instance the proprietor has evidently ulterior objects.

"The principal proprietor in the village of Baabda is the Emir Milheina, as he is the most influential of the family of Shehaab. It consists of houses entirely his property, and has gradually assumed its present size by a very simple arrangement. He gives a piece of ground, gratis, to any person wish- ing to build on his estate. The new occupant builds at his own expense. But a contract is previously entered into between the two parties, to the effect that should the latter desire at any time to leave, or should the former give notice to quit, the Emir is bound, after a fair valuation, to pay over to the party leaving the full coat and value of the buildings which he has erected. If ground has been brought into cultivation, its increased value is also taken into consideration and paid for. "The relation thus established is that of landlord and tenant. There is no immediate gain to the Emir in the way of income; but tho buildings on his

property increase, his retainers multiply, his consequence augments, and he remains virtually proprietor of all improvements. The tenant, on the other

hand, having made a considerable outlay to effect a settling, is cautious of giving offence to a landlord who has the power of turning him out whenever he chooses."

As already intimated, Mount Lebanon may be consulted with advantage by all who wish to acquire a knowledge of the people and their customs. Colonel Churchill continually uses the word "feudal," but the system seems rather clannish or patriarchal, somewhat resembling that of the Scottish Highlands. Theoreti- cally, the idea of family prevails among the tribes, and not it would seem, without justice.

"The same rules hold good amongst them as amongst the nobility with regard to the choice of brides. No young man can marry out of the imme- diate range of his relations, so long as there arc any single girls in the fa- mily ; and a deviation from this rule is so fiercely resented that it is scarcely ever heard of. On the other hand, should a young girl dare to fix her affec- tions on any young man not her cousin, the whole of her male relations rise up in arms, and after having made for her what they consider a fit and appropriate choice from amongst themselves, if argument and persuasion fail in bringing her to a sense of her impropriety, bring her to the altar by force. Such an occurrence, to be sure, is rare, but the exception proves the rule.

"The consequence of this custom is, that there are families of one name in the Lebanon so numerous as to amount to clans, and who boast of from one hundred to one hundred and fifty and even two hundred men bearing anus, which is a source of immense pride and gratification, and confers in- fluence and importance. A few days before the marriage takes place, the peasant takes a propitiatory present of fowls, coffee, or sugar, to his landlord or feudal chief, and asks permission to perform the ceremony. A week is spent in rejoicings at his own home by the bridegroom, who all this time wears a pelisse of honour sent him by his landlord—by the bride, in pre- parations for her nuptials. On the aay fixed, usually on a Sunday, the bridegroom's relations come for the bride, when all her connexions make presents, varying from one to five shillings each, which are collected in a purse and given to the bride before she leaves the paternal roof. She takes her farewell by biasing the hands of all the male members of her family in succession.

"The procession is now formed, and moves on at the slowest pace pos- sible; the bride walking or riding, according to circumstances, closely veiled. A halt is made every five minutes, when the party sing songs accompanied by music, while some perform the sword-dance. Au hour is sometimes taken up in traversing a hundred yards. This uncommonly tedious rate of ad- vancing is intended to indicate that the bride is in no extraordinary haste to reach her future husband, and is a part of that characteristic reserve and modesty, whether real or fictitious, which distinguishes the sex on all such occasions in the East. "If the party has to go through a village on their route, the bride keeps her hand to her head, which is bashfully held down all the time occupied in passing through; thus respectfully saluting the inhabitants, who on their parts sprinkle her with corn and raisins. On reaching her future home, the bride flings a pomegranate amongst the party; which is greedily snapped up and partitioned by the young men, and Is supposed to give the marriage in- fection. As she crosses the threshold, she tikes out of her bosom a piece of yeast, which she has brought from her father's house, and sticks it firmly on the door-post,—signifying thereby her resolution to cleave closely to her hus- band; the latter, at the same moment, standing on the roof, exactly above the door, with a drawn sword over her head,—emblematical of the absolute sway which he is to hold over her throughout life."

The historical part of the work has more interest than the reli- gious, not only from being concerned with men and actions, but because many of the persons were remarkable individuals : it gives a good idea of the provincial government of the old Pachas.