THE CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES OF PARIS.
TUE peculiar importance which attaches to the ouvrier element in the world of French politics is so self-evident as to need no commentary. Paris is still what it has been, the seat and organ of that feverish and fitful action which seems inseparable from the character of French revolution, while everything tends to prove that this action, far from passing out of the hands of those sections who imparted so marked a type to its last outburst in 1848, will on its next appearance again bear the impress of the same democratic origin. The Paris workmen, like the rest of France, have had their period of sleep, but like it also are reviving—a fact which they have unmistakeably established by the part they have taken in the elections. When France will once more see burnt over her one of those political squalls of terrific violence, which periodically have shaken without destroying her no man can tell, but whenever it does come—and come it will—then its coming will be unavoidably attended with a return of all those democratic and social questions, which are indissolubly connected with revolutions, which are the outflow of truly popular instincts. How mightily the speedy collapse of the movement of 1848 was due to the economical fallacies of its chief promoters, and to the absolute impossibility of putting their fanciful theories into practice, is sufficiently known. It cannot but be a matter of interest to inquire how far that contact with the realities of life, which then so roughly dispelled the confidence of many in their power to set agoing a society on the model of Phalansterian sym- metry, may have likewise tended to familiarize with sounder views any considerable section of that very formidable political body, in the event of revolution, the Paris workmen. It is, therefore, gratifying to know, that there exist at present in Paris workmen's associations, which may in many respects be looked upon as the very type of what is excellent in the co-operative principle, and which, besides, have the inestimable advantage of being able to point to the practical evidence of their having successfully overcome the greatest possible amount of artificially heaped-up difficulties. During a recent visit to Paris we have had an opportunity of inspecting most of these associations, and we purpose here to give a succinct account of the conditions in which the co-operative system now stands in France.
It is in France that the co-operative idea first took shape. On the 10th September, 1831, some few poor furniture-makers signed a deed of co-operative partnership, the terms of which had been decided upon in long conferences with some of the most distinguished amongst those, often mistaken, but gener- ously minded men, whose philanthropic theories have imparted a marked feature to that period of French history. In deference to the regenerative aspirations of these thinkers, the association was by its founders meant finally to embody the whole trade, the conception of the new organization of labour being, that each branch of industry should become in the end monopolized within a co-operative guild of freely united workmen. With this view a yearly quota of the profits was by the rules set aside to be sunk in perpetuity as a fund, on which no associate could ever have any individual claim, and which, by unlimited accumulation, was meant in the end to attain propor- tions that would enable the association almost necessarily to absorb the whole business of its trade. This ambitious conception of the association, as an absorbing incorporation, is the feature which distinguishes all the French associations of what may be called the first epoch, ending in 1848. The error was the natural error of minds soaring wildly on the wings of high-flown aspirations. Success did not attend these early efforts ; and of the dozen or so of associations started before 1848 one alone still flourishes, that of the Goldsmiths, founded in 1834, an association well worthy the attention of all who care for co-operative societies ; for it is the oldest in existence, and owes its having survived its fellows entirely to the eminent character of its members. These men really are the very type of high-minded and moral intelligence. Deeply im- pressed with a sense of the immense importance of practically demonstrating the feasibility of their industrial principles, these goldsmiths have felt themselves to be invested with a kind of apostleship, and the duty of giving an example to others. Complete success has crowned their exertions. Few in numbers (they are little over a dozen), the co-operative goldsmiths are flourishing in every respect, and among their members are men who have conspicu- ously identified themselves with whatever has been done or attempted . to elevate the moral condition of the Paris workmen. The highest
espect is due to the noble nature and pfactical sagacity of these
operatives. It should be mentioned that, although the members have become thoroughly converted from the fallacy of attempting to im- press whole trades within the pale of an association, they have, never- theless, not abrogated the original obligation to set apart a yearly sum. Should the association dissolve itself, then, in virtue of the con- tract on the part of each associate never to claim a right to par- ticipate in the accumulated fund, it has been resolved that this money shall be made over to any new goldsmiths' association, which should constitute itself within two months after the cessation of the former, and comprise one half plus one of its members ; but if no such new association be formed within that time, then the money is to be given to the municipal authorities to be expended by them on works of charity.
The year 1848 inaugurated a new epoch for the workmen's asso- ciations, the termination of which second period we would place in the summer of 1863. The former was the period of infant insignificance, but here we enter upon the burst of youthful vigour, marked with all the vicissitudes and manifold experiences which naturally throng this section of time. To dwell on all the points of interest presented by the associations which sprang to life under the impulse of the Revolution of 1848 would demand volume. We must confine ourselves to indicating merely such as had a permanent bearing upon the character and condition of co- operative labour in France. It will surprise no one to learn that of the mushroom heap of associations which started up in the first flood of 1818, composed of members without selection and framed on rules generally ill-considered, often most whimsical, very few indeed contrived to flourish, in spite of the three millions of francs granted in aid by the country. In January, 1863, U. Baluze estimated at only sixteen the surviving associations which dated their birth from this second period, and of these only one, that of House Painters, was of a date posterior to the coup d'elat—an event which proved fatal to the action of the workmen, and exposed the co-operative societies for a series of years to an ordeal out of which to have come with success carries with it demonstration of sound constitution. Now the first point which strikes one on inquiry into the organization of these associations is the wholesome influence which experience has exerted upon the members. Reared for the most part in the ideas of political economy which gave their complexion to the vagaries of 1818, these men, truly sturdy and intelligent veterans, who with undaunted_ resolution fought their fight with nothing but their spirit for a. weapon against the whole power of an arbitrary police, bit by bit have- eliminated what was fallacious in their original conceptions. Thn notion of incorporating trades in one society, and the fanciful pro- visions which, dictated by communistic views and aspirations, were introduced in the first regulations, have been utterly dropped and modified. No study can be more instructive than that of the noiseless and gradual transformations which these obscure associa- tions have decreed for themselves, under the guiding hand of practical experience. Unfortunately we have space but just to draw attention to them.
Of these sixteen associations two alone participated in the State subsidy voted in 1848, one of Furniture-makers and one of File. makers. These are the sole surviving results of that hasty scheme. The file-makers were started by a loan of 10,000f. at three per cent., which in 1856 they paid back ; when liberated from Government supervision they reconstituted themselves on their present footing. The capital of the association is not limited to a sum. It can accumulate to any amount out of the profits which, after allotment. to each associate on the scale of the wages he has earned in the- year, are not paid down, but are capitalized for him in the concern at four per cent. At present the capital amounts to 100,000f., the average profits on each man's wages being forty-three per cent., and the present number of associates being eighteen. The furniture-makers have likewise discharged their debt to the State, and their capital is now about 25,000f., shared amongst twenty associates. More instructive, however, is the career of those associations that from the first struggled into ex- istence without any helping hand being extended to them.. Of these we would point out as especially worthy of observation the chairmakers, the carriage-builders, the last- makers, the masons, and the spectaclemakers. The Chairmakeue Association was founded in 1848 by eighteen :trauma who had scraped together 315 francs. The association enjoyed great popularity at the time ; its infancy was watched over by some of the leading Socialists of the day, and its members rapidly grew to the number of 104. But evil times came after the coup tritat, and with evil times the stuff of men showed itself. Many of those who had joined in the tide of favouring circumstances now fell away, and in falling away carried with them their contribution to the common capital. These calls for repayment embarrassed the association terribly, and a season came when distress hung heavily on the small knot of stout-hearted men, who unflinchingly persisted in facing the darkness of the times. Their courage has been re- warded. The present condition of the association is promising, its capital being 50,000 francs, with nineteen associates and an in- creasing business, especially of exportation to South America. There are now five candidates for admission, which requires two years' noviciate—a regulation, we believe, of singular severity. Wages are paid by piecework, but the profits are divided according to the number of days spent at labour,—a piece of communistic doctrine, on the principle of compensating the weak and unskilled artisan for the greater number of hours he requires to get through his task. But the most curious point in connection with the association, is the triumph it has succeeded in winning for its credit, over the notorious unwillingness of the French people to familiarize itself with a system of private paper currency. Notes of from 50 centimes to one franc are issued in payment of wages to the workmen employed by the association, and these notes are freely current as good coin amongst all the little shop- keepers of the quarter, who exchange them at the offices of the association against discountable bills at three months' date. These notes were first issued with the view of keeping the workmen from straying to distant drinking-shops, their currency being necessarily restricted to the immediate neighbourhood of the society. The Carriage-builders are the only other association that has succeeded in securing the same kind of credit for itself. The Lastmakers' Association owes its origin to four workmen, whose poverty was so great that they began operations with the sum of two francs. At present the members are twenty-seven, and last year's division of profits was at the rate of 21 francs 91 centimes per cent, on the capital of 35,000 francs. There are some peculiarities in the ex- isting regulations. Each member's contribution to the capital is now fixed at 1,000 francs, of which 300 francs are to be forfeited in the event of leaving the association. Formerly, workmen who were employed participated in the profits ; but this is no longer the case, it having been found in the opinion of the association that this enactment led to litigation.
The Masons, without doubt, afford the most brilliant example of co-operative success, for having begun with nothing but their tools and their arms for capital, they the other day con- tracted for the erection of two theatres which are to cost 1,500,000 francs ; and this practical result has been attained although, on first starting, no association was ever more thoroughly infected with the peculiar fallacies of unsound aspirations. The distinguishing peculiarity of their rules is in reference to the division of profits. The costly nature of their trade rendered it 'necessary to obtain the intervention of capitalists. Accordingly, 40 per cent, of the year's profits is allotted to these, and only the remainder is distributed to the associates, on the scale of their wages. Should any associate be kept from his work by causes beyond his control, he is entitled to share in the profits as if he had earned the wages of the days when he was absent—that is to say, each associate has a right to 365 days' profits, unless he forfeits them by voluntary laziness. The last association we wish to draw attention to is that of the Spectacle-makers, next to the Masons the wealthiest in Paris ; but the constitution of which is distinguished by points which give it in some respects a peculiar character, and have exposed it, on the part of some of the other associations, to the charge of departing from the true principles of the co-operative system. The beginnings were here, also, of the humblest kind, consisting of thirteen artisans with their skill for their whole stock in trade. The point which has given rise to controversy is, that the year's profits are divided, not exclusively in proportion to each member's wages for that year, but in joint pro- portion to his wages and to his amount of accumulated earnings from previous gears. Therefore the new associate stands in regard to this division in a different position from his older comrade, who receives a much larger share, although during the twelve months 'whose labour has produced the sum under partition, he has not contributed more to its production than the lees favoured neophyte. Whatever may be the abstract worth of the principles advanced for and against this particular organization—and much may be said on both sides—it is certain that the association is financially a most flourishing and, as it seems, a most contented body. Started in 1849 without any funds, it now carries on a vast busi- ness, employing about 150 workmen in addition to about thirty associates, and comprising an auxiliary establishment in the country for the manufacture of the requisite glasses. The original associates by the end of 1863 possessed each a property, accumu- lated out of profits, of 12,000 francs invested in the capital of the
concern, which at that period had attained to 150,000 francs, on which sum a dividend of 35 per cent, was made in the year 1863, which, however, was one of unusual profit. This association has, besides, a sick fund, out of which an allowance of one franc a day is advanced to any associate afflicted with permanent and disabling illness, provided it be not due to misconduct, in which case his relief becomes matter for particular deliberation. A founder of the association who in 1849 could command nothing beyond his skill, if in the end of 1863 he should have found him- self obliged to retire from work through incurable sickness, would consequently have been the master of a sum of 12,000 francs, of which he could dispose as he might choose, and in the addi- tional receipt of a daily allowance of one franc,—a practical result which speaks 'for itself, and is well calculated to tell with proselytizing effect.
There are several other associations of contemporary date which invite attention, but our space obliges us to pass them by, for all that is essentially characteristic in the organization of the co- operative system as embodied in the existing societies of Paris that date from 1848, is represented by those we have dwelt upon. In visiting this batch of associations, what struck us deeply was the degree with which the members were imbued with a genuine sense of the spirit of co-operation. Wild and exaggerated notions had been discarded, not from a general disposition to disbelieve in pro- gress, but simplyin a reasonable deference to intelligent observation. The tone of elevated feeling and unaffected simple earnestness amongst the members of these associations was unmistakeable. There was a degree of calm self-reliance in these men, which dis- tinctively marked them out as individuals who had gone through the fiery furnace of severe trial. To them is due the immense merit that they successfully maintained, through a season of apparently overwhelming adversity, a mighty principle which now appears to be passing into a new and brighter phase of existence, the cir- cumstances that seem to herald which, we will recount in our next.
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